Quarterly Journal of Methodology of Social Sciences and Humanities

Based on Shi'a thought, the practical tradition is one of the sources of inference that has not been considered by scholars due to the lack of explanation of the foundations and methods of its use. One way to increase the use of the practical tradition of inference is to explain the beliefs that their acceptance brings more effective practice. The present research has attempted to explain a fundamental belief based on the implications of the practical tradition based on an analytical-exploratory method and, by explaining the consequences of its adoption, to develop methods of deduction from the current tradition. Believing in the independent signification of the practical tradition is one of the effective presuppositions in the development of an inference from the practical tradition, the result of which is the extension of the methods of deduction from the practical tradition in two ways: one: the extraction of the dominant principle and the two: revitalization

This article has attempted to make it possible to compare and analyze different theories of Islamic art and architecture based on their methodological commonalities and differences. The theories are collected using the "documentary" method and their roots, abilities and limitations have classified, criticized and analyzed through Islamic theoretical framework.
The historiographical, traditional, and semantical methods do not have the ability of deserving a theory to be called “Islamic” and the ability of formation of Islamic art and architecture, and do not refer to the "valid resources", Textualist methods deal with resources by “invalid methods” and suffer from a variety of analogies and allegories. Individual jurisprudence, despite being well-equipped with resources and methods, is not equipped with a tool for discovering the relationship between social rules and the control of subject recognition. And the method of the jurisprudence of the systems, which eliminates this defect of individual jurisprudence, requires a logic that establishes the coordination between the methods of subject matter recognition and the Fiqh methods (which used to deliver the sentence of the subject matter). The logic that can be exploited using the findings of the “philosophy of system of guardianship.”.

In this paper, we propose a tool-supported approach for carrying out the literature review in behavioral science research. Review of literature has proved to be a problematic stage for researchers, especially for early career ones. In this model, both a technological tool and a few conceptual tools are introduced such as activity system model, PRISMA model, a model for inclusion and exclusion of literature and a model for search phrases. This technological-conceptual model is then integrated with a model for scoping review and finally, an example illustrates the whole procedure. In addition to simplifying the job of literature review, the model presented in this paper provides a solid ground for systematic study of the literature, a thematic analysis of that, exploring contradictions and conflicts in the literature to picture future steps in that domain and for a clear and comprehensive illustration of the subject under study in the literature

In this research, the methodology of studies in the field of security has been developed. The present research is based on the objective of the developmental research and on the nature of the category of exploratory research. The method of data collection; the field and its tools have been interviewed by experts.
Using qualitative research method and in order to discover the subject, targeted interviews with 20 key experts and experts were conducted using snowball sampling. Then, using the Delphi strategy and deep interviews, the methodology of security studies and the final model was configured.
This research outlines the basic assumptions of a new method of inclusive prediction. The research findings indicate that "methodology" of security studies is the result of the effect and influence of various philosophical, organizational, methodical, social, and individual factors. The results of the research showed that it could be inspired by the approach of competitive values ​​and the placement of philosophical schools in the coordinate axes of that method of amoebic analysis for security studies.

The subject of this research is in which way we can name the part of philosophies or part of the philosophical research into Islamic philosophy. Although in naming something a little relation is sufficient, but in this research we attempt to bring significant relation for this naming. Therefore, this reason is placed on a law of definition: as the definition must be inclusive and exclusive, and equally cover its subjects and equally exclude the other subject, the criterion of the present naming can also be include Islamic philosophies and put other philosophies away. The chosen hypothesis in this article, not only is in accordance with the mentioned law but also possible to be added by more contents

Although economists typically try to make their theories free from ethical evaluations, their theories are value laden. In this paper, we examine the impact of ethical schools on economic policies. The findings of the paper show that consequential, deontological, virtue-based and rights-based ethics have a particular impact on economic policy making. These approaches, while affecting the definition of the goals of economic policies, provide the basis for establishing the principles that define the framework of economic policies for achieving those goals. The result of this trend is that neoclassical utilitarian economists, with an emphasis on the role of complete competition market for achieving welfare, propose price policies to compensate market failure. The policy orientation in the capability-based approach of Sen and rights-based Contractarianism of Rawls, through the creation of changes in the structure of the market and the introduction of new institutions, is respectively, human development and the provision of basic goods to the poorest of the community. The feminist virtue-based economists also propose the promotion of the role of women's caring activities in their policy orientations.

The purpose of this study is to investigate Malik Bennabi's method in the acquisition of social cognition with emphasis on both his community survey strategy and his way of data analysis. The two main parts in this research are as follows: 1. Malik's social exploration method 2. His data interpretation method. To clear these issues, a systematic process was undertaken to read and critically classify the works of Bennabi. Investigations carried out in the present study yielded the finding that Bennabi considers environmental, civilizational, human and cultural aspects in the study of society. In cognitive analysis of society, his emphasis is on social subject priorities, social classes and their effectiveness, the quality of triple worlds, and the coefficients of internal and external factors. The authors of this study believe that by developing such studies on Muslim thinkers one can gain a clearer understanding of the theoretical structure of Muslim scholars' thought.

sources (books and traditions)or secondary sources(fatwas and concepts)or a combination of the two to discover school theories, while explaining the operation of discovery: Islamic theories based on Islamic law and Discover concepts.In the present article,based on his performance and based on the analysis of the principles of jurisprudence and philosophy of science,the correct method of citation in recognizing school theories is judged.
To cite primary or secondary sources in the discovery of religious theories, the following assumptions can be made: 1.The distinction between religious theory and its source, in reference to secondary and primary sources.3.Separation between types of religious theory, in reference to primary and secondary sources.3.Refer to secondary sources assuming no access to primary resources.4.Refer to primary sources if there are no secondary sources. Hypotheses one and two are rejected, hypothesis three is acceptable, and hypothesis four is acceptable. Hypothesis four is based on the ranking between sciences, the affirmative precedence of"jurisprudence of theory"over"jurisprudence of rulings" and the positive delay of" jurisprudence of theory" from "jurisprudence of rulings".The dichotomy between real and apparent judgment does not impair the validity of Shahid Sadr's performance in citing secondary sources.

This study is aimed to achieve the foundations of social constructionism by using analytical method. Using analytical method, dissection of the social constructionism’s foundations will be the main aim of this study. To achieve social constructionism’s foundations, after preparing a definition, its differences with constructivism, its types, features, and roots were examined. The results showed that despite being realistic with regards to ontology, as soon as talking about the reality, social constructivism changes to a constructed phenomenon, which adopts a critical and pluralistic stand. Knowledge, in this perspective, is the product of social interactions. Furthermore, constructionism, regarding ethics and values, treats with respect to the values of other cultures and believes in toleration. Thus, social constructionism is based on a relative and pluralistic ontology, epistemology, and axiology. Viewing from an anthropological point of view, social constructionists, are also known as anti-essentialism and anti-individualism and the human is considered as a social animal. Finally, they assign both individual and society as the origin of effect.

The method of Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) was first introduced by Ragin and then applied in the various disciplines of social sciences by many scholars to explain their interested outcomes. This methodology is important because it has adopted characteristics from both quantitative and qualitative approaches; in fact, it is simultaneously variable-oriented and case-oriented, so the researcher can do causal research as well as gather some in-depth historical information on each case. In this article, at first, the mentioned method and its different types is reviewed. Then, the public policy researches conducted by Qualitative Comparative Analysis are classified into public policy fields, policy and politics, policy process, policy analysis and evaluation, and policy implementation. In fact, the purpose of this article is to introduce a method for an outcome explanation to policy scholars and policy makers, in order to apply it as well as other common methods. Certainly, scholars could find other applications of Qualitative Comparative Analysis in addition to the reviewed ones.

I have tried to retrieve Newton’s scientific method. To do so, I raise two principal questions: 1. What is Newton’s evolving scientific method that he devised in The Principia and Opticks during a period of fifty years? 2. Can we now, after more than three hundred years, claim with certainty that we know what Newton’s scientific method is?
Conclusions reached:
In order to make those theories readily believable and simultaneously reject those of rival Cartesians, Newton modifies the rules of ‘the game of science’ making them compatible with his theories.
Newton skillfully devises those rules compatible with his ‘physical’ views, in such a way that anyone who accepts those rules would be inclined to infer his theistic belief-system.
Newton does not modify any of his ‘physical’ views in the various editions of The Principia. He introduces some new rules for the ‘game of science’ and invalidates current rules.
Contrary to Newton’s methodological prohibitions about proposing hypotheses which was propounded for his opponents, in practice he had no reservation to engage in hypothesizing.

There is clear need for methodological and scientific evaluating of new methological approaches in social science researches in the country; For overcoming this need there must be a standard criterion i.e. offering a pattern for methodological evaluating of new social/humanity studies in Iran is a necessary condition to show us the methodological situation of every social/humanity studies.
In this article, we try to have impartial view about the different approaches in the structure of all social and human sciences paradigms. By this approach, we seek different properties of scientific researches, which in the first step that can bring us a kind of scientific systemization for researches. This pattern by penetrating the basic foundations of social/human sciences give us a three basic layers for scientific evaluating and finding the methodological situation of new studies.

Common sense realism and scientific realism are two metaphysical thesis. The former accepts the existence of the observable entities of common sense knowledge and the later accepts the unobservable entities necessary for the well-established scientific theories. Common sense realism and scientific realism are defended or rejected by some philosophers with reliance on the evolutionary approach. Studying these arguments shows there are positive evidences to the advantage of both subjects; realism and anti-realism, But skeptical consequences of evolutionary approach to science is a source for a new idea to specify science and to develop the scientific epistemology. In this article، in addition to investigating the above local reasonings to the advantage of Van Fraasson's evolutionary explanation will be adopted for science and scientific epistemology growth on the basis of specifying evolutionary; the third position which between realism and belief in miracle is in specifying the success of science. In this approach, the evolutionary approach, the production of resistant and abiding models is the main goal of science and philosophy and the scientific realism is also one of the abiding models.

The nature of research in the field of education is mainly dynamic, unpredictable, and multidimensional; However, the majority of the existing research methods have a linear and staggered structure, which are merely pre-tailored to the prevailing research approach. This research is aimed to introduce the emerging research method, which is the forefront horizon in education research methodologies. The nature of this method is first analyzed using a descriptive method. Subsequently, the necessity of this method is presented according to the specific requirements of research in the field of education. The results show that the timely nature of the education process, the importance of individual differences, and the necessity of the empathy between the researcher and the human variables involved in the research are not fully considered in current education research methodologies; This is while the emerging research method, with its non-linear and unregulated structure, is adaptive to various educational situations, and by not limiting the researcher in the process steps, can well consider these aspects during the research.

This article aims at suggesting a new account of the distinction between basic and applied research which I call the functionalist account. In nearly all science and technology policy documents, the distinction is drawn in terms of the linear model of innovation which is not historically adequate. Upon the two conceptions of science representation and design plan, this new account discards the priority of basic over applied research which the linear model is based on. Instead, the functionalist account focuses on the social aspects and the context of use in which the final and intermediate outcomes of research are understood. To support this new account, I will next briefly review the development of transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the middle of the twentieth century. Finally, some research and education policy suggestions of this account will be considered.

The history of culture in Iran has been studied and researched in the framework of historical and sociological knowledge, but the cultural approach to historical categories and subjects does not have much history. "Cultural history" as a scientific approach derived from interdisciplinary studies has become relatively coherent over the past three decades. This event is the result of the accumulation of historians' experiences and the confrontation of contemporary methods and theories and its integration with other sciences, especially cultural studies, anthropology and cultural anthropology. Combining the methods of historical studies with other sciences, especially the social sciences, provided the basis for "historiography" to move away from its traditional methods and give way to "historical research." The diversity of "subject" and "method" in historical studies can be seen more than anywhere else in the important and influential works written in the second half of the twentieth century.give way to "historical research." The diversity of "subject" and "method" in historical studies can be seen.

Criticisms of the dominant paradigms of the science, especially the positivism and the interpretive paradigms, have intensified efforts to find alternative paradigms. One of the paradigms that has emerged in this regard is critical realism. This paradigm has created a reconciliation between the two rival paradigms by borrowing ontology from positivism and epistemology from interpretivism. Critical realism claims that can lead us to deeper understanding of the phenomena and it`s generative mechanisms by stratified ontology of it, that considers reality in three empirical, actual and real layers. But despite of the positive role of this paradigm in better understanding of the phenomena, methodology of it is still unclear and a few researches have been done in this paradigm. Therefore, in this article, after introducing the concepts, assumptions and theoretical foundations of critical realism, an attempt has been made to study its methodology from the perspective of different researchers. Finally, a practical example of research conducted under the banner of this paradigm is described to shed light on research in critical realism.

The critique of philosophical foundations of neoclassical economics is significant, because of its hegemony on economic education and research programs in Iran and worldwide academies. Due to an epistemological fallacy, methodological individualism plays a prominent role in the philosophy of economic; since the ontological aspects of economy are reduced to methodological considerations. Accordingly, critique of methodological individualism is regarded as the main entry for philosophical analysis of neoclassical economics. This article aims to analyze and appraise the methodological individualism from critical realism’s point of view. Critical realism is taken as a stand for criticizing methodological individualism, because critical realism and neoclassical economics as a positive approach to economics, both share a realistic worldview. The critical realism’ critique of methodological individualism is bases on analyzing the concepts of formalism, syllogism, social atomism, isolation and reduction. From critical realism’ point of view because of unrealistic postulations of methodological individualism, neoclassical economics is turned to an abstract and deductive science such as mathematics with a low potentiality of explanation.

The multilevel approach to theory building with the simultaneous understanding of phenomena at multiple levels of analysis provides opportunities for developing new theories with a rich context and more effective data interpretation. Single-level approaches to theory building are not able to explain the complexity of phenomena, because phenomena have antecedents, mediators, moderators, and consequences that are at different levels. In the field of entrepreneurship, we see the predominance of single-level theories. The existing theories in the field of entrepreneurship have examined the micro or macro levels separately and by ignoring the middle level and the interaction between the levels, they have not been able to present a holistic picture of entrepreneurial phenomena that reflects their complexities. Therefore, correct, rich, comprehensive and valuable insights are not obtained from theories. In the few existing multi-level theories, a proper and comprehensive approach to theorizing has not been adopted. Based on this, this research, while explaining the necessity and nature of multilevel theory building and its various approaches, presents an improved approach through the analysis and criticism of existing approaches. In the improved approach, steps such as the emergence of collective phenomena, identification of the function and structure of phenomena, rules of interaction between constructs, flexibility of levels, validity of constructs, confirmation or operationalization of theory and interpretation of results are proposed.  In addition, new developments in this approach such as the role of people in shaping the organizational context are proposed. It is expected that the results of this research will change the views of single-level researchers and provide a suitable practice guide for interdisciplinary theorists interested in multi-level studies.

What has formed the main purpose of the current research is the analysis of a mysterious field of knowledge called common sense. This research, in fact, has determined the contemplation of an epistemic field as its fundamental goal which should be considered as the opposite side of the scientific knowledge field. Since this opposition is based on the specific epistemology and methodology of each of these fields, the upcoming research has disclosed common sense from two epistemological and methodological aspects. This research has shown that the aforementioned field of knowledge has such bonds with interference, entanglement and ambiguity that any kind of epistemologically disclosure of it should always pay attention that it is faced with the embodiment of indeterminability, uncertainty and undecidability. The current research, in addition, has shown that what should be counted as the turning point of the methodological disclosure of common sense is the authority of this epistemic domain in a form of human being that prefers people over things.

In recent years, implementing mission-oriented innovation policies to address grand societal challenges has been pursued in various countries. As a result, there has been a substantial increase in theoretical discussions about the policies and related issues. One difficulty with mission-oriented innovation policies is their centralized character in challenge identification and mission definition. Identifying grand challenges and defining missions within a mission-oriented innovation policy are seen as centralized and top-down. There are several objections to the top-down approach to defining missions. Some researchers also argue that although traditional mission-oriented innovation policies embed a top-down approach in defining missions, it is not the case with modern mission-oriented policies that aim to address grand societal challenges and have diffusion-oriented and bottom-up aspects. However, the alternative bottom-up approach is also subject to several objections. In this paper, after considering the objections the top-down and/or bottom-up approaches encounter, a combined approach to challenge identification and mission definition is proposed based on the requirements a research mission should fulfill, which does not face the problems of the existing approaches.

Keywords

Medicalization is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment. In this process, biomedical science is used to explain social harms and provide ways to eliminate and prevent them. Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist and physician and founder of the positivist school of criminology in the 19th century, was one of the pioneers of the medicalization of crime. Lombroso suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies. In this article, we try to examine the process of medicalization of crime in his works. In the first step, we show that the basic premise of his research is based on Lamarck and Darwin's theory of evolution. He believed that the characteristics of criminals indicate an atavistic origin, that they reproduce the physical-psychological conditions of their distant ancestors. In fact, crime is a symptom of the primitive instincts that lie in the criminal, and criminals are a manifestation of returning to a primitive or subhuman type of human beings. His method at this stage was using phrenology and anthropometry. In the second step, we show that his method is based on model of thinking and reasoning in medicine. Lombroso tried to provide criteria for distinguishing criminals from normal people according to normal and abnormal in pathology.

Policy makers’ mental models provide a sound basis for Public policies’ forms and contents in every state. Interaction and discourse of the models (dynamics of models) can improve the context quality for policies’ formation. In process of public policy analysis, having an explanation for assumptions, values and mental models of policy makers is the most important function of policy analysts. One of the most common methods in this area is drawing of public policy makers’ cognitive maps. In this article, the method is explored and analyzed in terms of entity, historical evolution, a way of implementation (data elicitation, coding rules, merging and standardization, intercoder reliability, validity and reliability), an applied case in policy making field (presenting and interpreting Excerpt from a pre-crisis cognitive map of former German Chancellor Angela Merkel)  as well as criticism of it. Finally, Implications of the method for policy researchers are presented. This method elicits underlying values and assumptions easier, and less costly than many other eliciting methods.

The rule of law of the social world and the taking of a reasoned position on the contribution of each is one of the fundamental issues of the philosophy of social sciences. The law-based approach with the model authority of the natural sciences and the perception of the human world as part of the realm of the natural world with distinctive features, the purpose of social science to explain the causal relationships between social actions / phenomena and the discovery of law in a way Knows deductive; While the rule-based approach, believing in the intentionality, meaningfulness, normativeness, contextuality and purposefulness of human actions, the goal of social science is interpretive understanding (empathetic or hermeneutic) or understanding of human phenomena and cognition and Inference knows the reasons of the actors. Collectively, they have considered the purpose of these sciences as combination, understanding and explanation or explanatory understanding; Others have reinforced the causal position, albeit with a different interpretation, by reading it causally, and their causal role in action.
The present article seeks to discuss this deep and decisive conflict along with the principles, assumptions, effects, and conceptual results and methods of each of the preferred positions. The method of this study is as a collection, documentation and as an analysis and evaluation, the concept of mining and validation of the affirmative and affirmative evidence of each of the mentioned approaches.

Nowadays, the use of design thinking methodology in organization and management studies is increasing. In Iran within the field of organization and management, there is still a gap between thinking, formulation, and action, and the application of design thinking has been undeveloped conceptually and methodologically. The goal of this study is to explain discourses of design thinking, principles, models, and methods. The methodology of the study is based on a qualitative approach using secondary data content analysis and general qualitative research strategy. According to the study results, design thinking is rooted in two discourses of design and management, although with distinct applications. In this study, human-centered design, a combination of divergent and convergent thinking, co-creation, Iteration, and prototyping were identified as the five principles of design thinking in the field of the organization. In the following, the design thinking models of leading organizations were classified based on phases, stages and activities of design thinking and some of its most common methods were explained. Design thinking models are mainly process-based and can be summarized in four stages of exploration, creation, reflection, and implementation. Finally, research and operational suggestions for the use of design thinking in organizational and management problems with regard to the problem characteristics, level of analysis, and expected outputs are presented. These are unlimited to management science and will be used in other social sciences.

< p >The psychoanalysis of Jacques Lacan''s thought transcended the boundaries of his field, overshadowing the social, literary, and cinematic arenas. This process shows that psychoanalysis will no longer be reduced to an individual mentality and will continue to expand. Also, political science has come up with new theories that "the personal is political", and its concern is no longer just government, comparative politics, and the constitution. With the relationship between power and knowledge that came with Michel Foucault''s thoughts, we can no longer impose limits on politics. This article attempts to interconnect the gradual expansion of the two fields. This article tries to bridge the gradual expansion of the two disciplines and open a new horizon for political science. This horizon is associated with presenting a new narrative of society''s identity processes by investigating the acceptance or avoidance of other identities through the use of an Imaginary Order and Identification. Beliefs in the symbolic order will lead to the transition from formal political institutions to a system of signs to examine the subjugation of subjects and to explain identity conflicts. Contrary to structuralism, the use of real order, trauma, and fantasy lead to the acceptance that a revolution can be created. Finally, presenting a complex and delicate narrative of the issue of the subject-authority relationship while studying political phenomena can breathe new life into political theory and sociopolitical analysis.

In order to enable the application of the ijtihad method in the humanities, this article explores the leadership style in Islamic management, using Islamic teachings and based on ijtihad analysis.
Findings of this study show that ijtihad method is a combined method that is related to the combined knowledge of management from the branches of humanities and the method of Islamic leadership as one of the subjects of humanities in the field of ijtihad method can be analyzed. Considering the ijtihad method in Islamic teachings, there are two categories of propositions, in both of which there is a part of Quranic propositions and a part of narrative propositions.
Some of the first category statements directly depict the ruler or leader's relationship with followers and how they interact with them; However, some of these statements are general speeches that can be applied to the style of absolute softness; Therefore, it can be said that this category of propositions implies softness and absolute friendliness, and the second category of Qur'anic and narrative propositions emphasizes the mixing of softness with intensity of action; According to these two categories of propositions, according to the principles of jurisprudence and jurisprudence in the ijtihad method, it is possible to be in the position of a combination of propositions wherever a group of propositions (arguments) imply an absolute subject, at the same time a group Other propositions imply the same subject, carried absolute propositions to the constraint; What is more, according to the rule of "the plural is important, the first possibility of my plan", the arguments that are absolute can be carried on, so it can be inferred that in the leadership style, both flexibility and intensity of action are necessary; Hence, the result of ijtihad analysis is that leadership in Islamic management is a mixture of "maximum flexibility and minimum intensity."

Choosing any device of the axiomatic system can limit the level of our access to the real things and consequently our knowledge of the world around us to the principles of that device. This article tries to examine this issue from the perspective of the philosophy of science and shows how this issue has been addressed in the book “Theory of Games and Economic Behavior” by John von Neumann and Oscar Morgenstern. For this reason, several main axes such as "rationality", "determinism the system of a game", "equilibrium" and "the principle of ceteris paribus" are considered as principles in economics and how these axioms are placed within the system of Mathematical axiomatic system of game theory. Our general view is that one of the reasons that game theory cannot describe and analyze economic behavior, in general, is that it considers the world as a single-order system, and therefore the causal chain in this system is very long, while Self-organizing systems seek to create multidisciplinary organizations and are therefore willing to add to the complexity of the system for this purpose. Mathematics has a tool called isomorphism to compare order between two structures, but there is no such tool in economics, and so we often do not know that we are operating within two systems with different orders.

The presentation of a universal and ahistorical criterion has always been of interest to rationalists in order to rely on it to evaluate theories and to provide a criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science. This effort, which has so far yielded no results, has always been criticized by relativists. Relativists who see any reliance on the evaluation and adoption of scientific theories, including observations, as being influenced by social factors and political powers. Bhaskar, contrary to the rationalist approach, does not believe in a objective criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science, with a layered description of nature, makes the knowledge of the world conditional on purposeful and creative action with it. He considers scientific activity to be based on theorizing about the mechanisms of the underlying layers and to test them in the laboratory, and to defend the rationality of science with his own approach. In this article, we refer to the rationalist and relativist debate and explain Bhaskar's rational account of scientific activity. We will also argue that Bhaskar's description of scientific activity, his attention to the causal powers of things, and his special interest in experiment, have at their heart a methodological code called experimentation, which provides both a position against relativism and makes it possible to defend the possibility of scientific progress.

One of Searle's most important philosophical endeavors is to resolve the new conflicts that have arisen in the field of philosophy of mind. For this reason, as a philosopher of the mind, he seeks to address the challenges that the findings of biological neuroscience poes to purely philosophical metaphysics. The main purpose of this article is to examine Searle's view on the subject and the author's aim is to show that Searle's ontological explanation is intentionally problematic based on the approach of physicalism, although he uses sound methods and premises. This study has been done in two general axes. First, Searle's view of intentionality is explained and examined, then how he responds to conflicts arising from the naturalistic biological neurology. Examining Searle,s view and paying attention to the criticisms we have made of his view , it is clear that even if there is no challenge between the topics of biological neurology and the metaphysical discussion of intent- which is itself a point of connection- the will does not seem to be Searl's philosophical science is sufficient to solve this challenge.

Dilthey has sought to turn Kant's "critique of pure reason" into a "critique of historical reason" in the humanities, in order to provide both an independent position for the humanities and a new meaning of objectivity in this field. Gadamer rebuked him with his critiques, claiming that Dilthey had fallen into the trap of scientific objectivity and had unconsciously followed the tradition of Neokantism, which was prevalent in his day; despite his historical thinking, Dilthey has not been faithful to all the tools and results of this thinking in his system of thought.
In this article, we show how the foundation of the living world and the dilthey hermeneutic method are laid out in "history". The relation between "history", "erlebnis" and, ultimately, "hermeneutics" is the relation between "appearance and interior", which due to man's infinity, his relation to history and historical self-consciousness have found such a distinction, "history" is the "erlebnis" in unarticulated position and "erlebnis" is the same as "history" in the field of openness; "Hermeneutics" is also the logic of this relation and knowledge that has changed this appearance and interior from the position of "conciseness and presence" to the position of "detail and achievement"; Of course, in the light of such a view, what guarantees the objectivity and objective position of the (human) sciences is neither man, nor the erlebnis, nor history.

The present article seeks to analyze the basic patterns of modern management and to provide a comparative model of Islamic management based on the global foundations of management philosophy. To this end, first the global model of producing management paradigm was explained, then the following Islamic principles were applied to obtain a specific adaptive model of Islamic management. During the research process, the philosophical paradigms of modern management were first extracted and categorized from international sources. The findings of this classification show that the ontological paradigms of ontology and epistemology coexist in most management schools and are the basis for distinguishing different management schools from each other. Also, this systematic classification can lead to the extraction of a comprehensive global model for the production of the management paradigm. The research method in this research is comparative. Comparative study is in fact a method of study that puts phenomena together and analyzes them in order to enumerate the points of difference and similarity. Finally, Islamic ontological and epistemological foundations were comparatively placed in a paradigmatic model and a specific paradigmatic model of Islamic management was extracted. This model is formed based on the creation-divine ontology and the divine-theological epistemology.

Over the past decade, we have increasingly realized that when we try to replicate the data which are published in influential scientific journals, the initial results are not obtained. In other words, the stated findings of the articles which are published in the experimental sciences, including medicine and psychology, are generally invalid. This phenomenon has led to a crisis in the experimental sciences, known in 2012 as the "replication crisis." In the present article, first, the crisis is introduced and a brief account of the opinions of the scientists about the severity of the crisis is produced. Then, five possible causes for its occurrence are introduced. The claim of the article is that the most important cause for the crisis of reproducibility of scientific results of academic articles should be sought in the wrong policies of the academic institute or funding bodies of putting pressure on scientists to publish articles (publish or perish). In the final section, some solutions, corresponding to the five causes which are identified, to alleviate the crisis are presented . Two of these solutions, namely, expanding the domain of the “open science” and secondly, reducing the role of articles in assessing the competence of researchers and academics are introduced as the main strategies to alleviate the crisis.

Keywords

    Reproducibility Crisis Statistics P Value Cognitive bias Open Science

In this paper, the philosophy of post-phenomenology has been discussed. Post-phenomenology is a new approach in the philosophy of technology, which especially emphasizes the role of technology in changing human experiences and perceptions. First, the relationship between post-phenomenology and phenomenology and then the relationship between post-phenomenology and pragmatism is mentioned. It has been stated that post-phenomenology is a philosophy combined with pragmatism and classical phenomenology. Post-phenomenology, while retaining some features of classical phenomenology and setting aside some other features, including the emphasis on opposition to essentialism, has led to the philosophy being called a kind of pragmatic phenomenology. In the following, Post-phenomenological research methods are discussed, in this regard, methods are introduced and discussed, which include methods such as interviewing participants, observing participants, reporting first-person experiences, interviewing objects, and Robert Rosenberger's proposed method. All of these methods ultimately examine the relationship between humans and technologies and the changes that result from these relationships in different ways.

Entrepreneurship in tourism as an emerging discipline, but with increasing growth, has attracted the attention of scholars of various disciplines through their interdisciplinary background. Research in this area, however, faces the same methodological and research weaknesses, and the results do not pave the way for entrepreneurs and policymakers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and analyze the methodology of studies in this field using meta-analysis. Statistical population includes all articles published in domestic journals in the field of tourism entrepreneurship. Sampling was done through a whole-body method and 44 articles were selected. The methodology of Sanders et al. introduced and used to evaluate and analyze the articles. The results show that research in this field is mainly conducted in the positivist paradigm, since entrepreneurship in tourism is in the conceptualization and theorizing stage, research in this field requires fundamental orientations with exploratory goals, qualitative and synthetic approaches, grounded theory strategies, and comparative and deductive approaches. Finally, suggestions for future research are presented

Kant in Critique of Judgment, regards nature as the system of purposes, and contrary to the cause and effect system and the mechanistic approach that dominated his philosophy in the critique of pure reason, teleology and the teleological approach became the most important feature of Kant's third critique. Konigsberger's philosopher in the confrontation with nature, especially in organisms and animals and plants, finds that mechanistic approach could not be explained, so without denying the causality principle, he resorted to the principle of teleology in nature, attributing the former to the phenomenal world, and the second to the nominal world, because man is a citizen of both worlds.
Natural purpose or organic beings are the most important beings that Kant explain with his teleological approach. They are their cause and their effect, and on the other hand produce their own kind, as well as their survival and growth done through themselves, that way, they absorb substances from the outside and give them their own face.
In Kant's view, the ultimate purpose can only be human because he is capable to developing the purposes and by human will as the moral being that nature can be teleological, and determination the purpose by human will is culture or nurture, and thereby giving value to nature, otherwise nature and the creatures in it were in vain.
Keywords:“Kant”, “purpose”,“Natural Purpose(organism)”, “nature”, “purpose system”, “final purpose”,“human”.

The paradigm includes a set of values, beliefs and perceptions of reality with theories based on them, which uses a distinctive methodology to achieve research goals. The dominant paradigms in the humanities are Positivism, Interpretation, Criticism, Complexity and Postmodernism. This research seeks to understand the meta-theoretical and paradigmatic typology of economic schools by using the documentary and content analysis.
The results show that Neoclassical is positivist. Austrian tendencies are in the region of complexity, but the use of hermeneutics puts New Austrians closer to the interpretive paradigm, while the older part tends to be a Positivism. The existence of variable structures in the Post-Keynesian and Evolutionary indicates the influence of the Complexity. OIE is dominated by the Criticism because of its emphasis on domination and dialectics.
NIE uses the principles of Neoclassical and OIE as opposing currents. The elimination of this inconsistency has been due to the invention of Transaction Costs, which provides the basis for a paradigm shift from Positivism and Criticism to Complexity. The transaction cost is the unit of analysis and the connection of institutions to economic performance, the use of which will lead to objectivity and generalization.

The main concern of intercultural philosophy is communication or the realization of a common understanding between human beings. Then this question arises that by what way this communication should be realized. The technology of mass communication, migration and social and economic affiliations and extensive scientific communication have caused human beings today to have multiple nature instead of having a single and integrated identity. Humanities disciplines are therefore expected to adapt to intercultural definitions of human identity and human communication. In this regard, we explain the three methodological models of polylog, dialogue and analogous hermeneutics by referring to the first-hand works of Wimmer, Kimmerle and Adher Mall, respectively, which have been presented for the realization of intercultural humanities. All three models consider dialogue as a condition for full-fledged communication. Continuing with Wolfgang Welsch's transcultural idea, we address the barriers to an intercultural approach to full understanding. These patterns seem to complement each other in some way, and although they agree on the negation of cultural absolutism and exclusivism and its implications, they each look at the issue from a particular orientation.

One of the most important techniques for legislation is to write general Sections in criminal law. The concept of general materials is that the provisions of these Sections have a general scope and can be extended to the general public; Because general Sections are the norm and they want to be applied to specific Sections. In the Iranian legal system, the Islamic Penal Code provides for the first time four types of general articles, indicating the attention of the Iranian legislature to the discussion of general articles. Philosophy and the necessity of predicting general articles in criminal law have strong foundations, which include the reflection of the general principles of criminal law, the community of commonalities, and the certainty of certain criteria and the guarantee of measured criminal policy. With a critical approach and a descriptive-analytical approach, this study looks at the writing of the book Generalities and General Sections of the four books of the Islamic Penal Code adopted in 2013 and examines and analyzes the inconsistencies with the basis and requirements of generalities and general materials and provides appropriate solutions. It deals with this.

In this paper, an attempt has been made to develop a qualitative method of discourse analysis in a mixed (qualitative-quantitative) method by using the quantitative method of fuzzy c-means clustering. For this purpose, the institutional interactions of science and technology policy in Iran have been studied as a case study. Therefore, according to the "exploratory sequential mixed method", first using the fuzzy c-means clustering method and the questionnaire tool, the discourses of experts on the subject are identified and then using the Laclau and Mouffe discourse analysis method and interview tools to explain the nodal points, moments and articulations. Thus, "collaborative discourse" around the nodal point of "integrated policy making" and "independent discourse" around the nodal point of "government policy making" were identified. The most important result of this research is the development of discourse analysis method from qualitative paradigm to mixed paradigm and of course increasing the validity of research findings. In addition, this innovation is in line with the main stream in methodology and, due to the use of fuzzy logic, is very similar to the ambiguous and complex concepts of social sciences.

Masson – Ourcel comparative method is based on context/reality. He considers philosophical thoughts as a reality and input which should be groomed, fertilized and evolved in a context to be paid attention. By this way, he highly emphasizes on the importance and role of context and a historic attitude toward thoughts. Being influenced by positivism, he insists on components such historiography, humanism and preventing the intervention of presumptions. According to him, human should be totally considered in comparative studies free from color, race and thinking types. Although one can challenge his comparative method in different perspectives such as the status of positivism opponents, in present paper, we only address opinions by toward meta-history and structuralists who have done their best to degrade western thinking duals like contxt/reality as well as Quentin Skinners’ opinions as a critic of Masson – Oursel’s comparative method.

Masson – Ourcel comparative method is based on context/reality

From the viewpoint of different theories of social and human sciences, the position/role of reason in science is not the same.
By considering the constituents of social and human sciences, as expressed in the theories of human sciences, and by considering the limits and realm of reason, as expressed in the theories of reason, we can evaluate the position/role of reason in each of the submited images of social and human sciences.
Part of this extensive research is to assess the validity of the various images of these sciences based on the limits and realms accepted for practical reason in theories of reason.
This article seeks to examine the rationality of social and human sciences using this various images presented by theories of reason.
The method of this study is to analyze the theories of social and human sciences in order to assess the position/role of practical reason in each of these theories.
For this purpose, using some theories of human sciences, various components involved in the realization of human sciences are identified. Then, using theories of practical reason, different probabilities of the limits and realm of practical reason are expressed. Finally, according to different probabilities concerning the limits and realm of practical reason, the position/role of practical reason in the theories of the humanities, which have been analyzed, is revealed.

Curriculum development and design of learning systems have become a sophisticated process due to diverse set of learning needs and differences in learners' interests, contents, teaching-learning approaches and the impact of political, social and economic factors, and, hence, decision-making about this complex process and its related factors must be done scientifically. Therefore, choosing the effective approaches that lead us to make appropriate decisions is of paramount importance. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of Analytic Network Process in decision making for the curriculum development based on philosophical method. In this paper, multi-criteria decision-making techniques, and differences between the Analytic Hierarchy Process with Analytic Network Process were analyzed. Then, the nature of the curriculum design and the complexity of decision-making in this field were discussed, and its correlation with new methods was analyzed. The findings indicated the efficiency of the Analytic Network Process in managing the challenges of curriculum implementation, recognizing the influential and complex factors in curriculum development, developing futuristic outlook toward curriculum changes, and analyzing the educational needs which are beneficial for researchers and curriculum planners.

Human resource development theory represents organizational human development in the general mean; this theory, with an interdisciplinary approach, includes various organizational contexts. The theoretical literature indicates the gradual expansion of the theory into the organizational contexts of private business, governmental and non-profit. This article examines the development of theory into a judicial context. The purpose of this article is to achieve a theoretical framework for human resource development in the field of justice. The study method is a review of the research literature, interviews with 9 academic and judicial experts and thematic analysis of data. The results of the analysis indicate that the legal solution patterns represent the theme of the judicial profession; and includes four models of adaptive, contextual, institutional, and critical. The models of legal solution are divided into two continuum: the importance of the judicial issue (normal to important) and the continuum of the goal of resolving the judicial issue (returning to the current legal order to create a new legal order); Therefore, they are classified into four adaptive, contextual, institutional and critical categories. This classification is a guide to the theoretical framework of judicial human resource development. The theoretical framework includes stabilization judicial human, evolutionary judicial human, institutionalist judicial human, and change-oriented judicial human.

Discourse theory and discourse analysis methods are rooted in an interdisciplinary approach to various sciences, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, semantics, terminology and more.
Meaning plays an essential role in the process of discourse construction. In fact, meaning is the spirit of discourse, and the method of discourse analysis is to achieve different meanings of discourse. How meaning is formed in discourse lays the groundwork for the multifaceted domain of meaning that can bring discourse to the various stages of semantics that play a key role in understanding the process of discourse.
In this context, the Practical Discourse Analysis Method (PDAM), which is designed based on the process of semantic transformation, will be introduced.
In this method, 5 analytical levels are designed: level-level, depth-level, level-depth, depth-depth (deep), and deeper. At each stage, meaning plays an essential role in the transition from one level to another. Ultimately, what is obtained is the product of semantic interaction, semantic interdisciplinary, semantic process, semantic developments, and semantic fluidity.
An attempt was also made to provide an example of the implementation of this method in the Supreme Leader's statements on the Islamic Awakening. In this analysis, the basic signs and in fact the basic goals of these statements in the field of Islamic awakening are explained.

The financial system consists of a three-layered reality, respectively, principles, institutions and knowledge. The half-hidden of which are principles, and institutions.
This paper proves in a library way that financial knowledge is based on certain principles and the impossibility of separating its principles makes it impossible to overshadow its nature with superstructural changes. Among the intrinsic features of common fiscal patterns and policies are: sufficient to empirical knowledge and ignorance of revelatory cognition, instrumentalist method, mathematical and statistics fact-making templates, the centrality of reason is an objective and partisan tool, neutrality and separation from value, reason is a function of desires, man's interpretation of a greedy and greedy creature, competition and herd behavior, promote gambling and interest. It was also proved that the current financial economy, despite its beautiful appearance, has caused serious damage to the economy, which is rooted in the principles and goals of capitalist economics. Falling into the trap of these patterns, has led to continuous crises in the real economy, the emergence of profit-oriented and uncontrolled anti-production patterns, moral hazards, declining social capital and lack of values in society.
Accordingly, the financial system and consequently the institutions and models derived from it, even with the appearance of sharia contracts, are not Islamic. The basic condition for the validity of Islamic financial versions is the formation based on principles, Figh and moral criteria.

Social pathology is a sociological term used in reference to deviant behaviors, or actions that societies have agreed are immoral or unacceptable. Émile Durkheim, a French sociologist in the nineteenth century, created the foundation for the modern sociological study of society by focusing on social facts, structures, and systems. His profound ideas generated many concepts and methods in his books especially in The Rules of Sociological ‎Method and Suicide. He applied the model ‎of modern medical thinking for studying deviant behaviors. According to modern medicine, which was formed in the ‎nineteenth century, the process of diagnosing the disease is based on "the pathological and the ‎normality". In this article, we try to show that Durkheim's "social pathology" is based on this ‎model. First we briefly describe the ‎characteristics of "the pathological and the normality" in diagnosis of disease in modern medicine. We ‎then show this medical model influences Durkheim's functionalist approach for studying deviant behaviors, or actions

Document-based historiography has a micro-partial approach to historical phenomena. This approach is a reaction to the dissatisfaction with the grand narratives of history, which leads to ignoring principal share of the historical elements of the nations to unify the analyses. The current research was the answer to a question in the field of methods, uses, and the place of these kinds of documents among historical references. Representing the importance and priority of family documents in sociological studies is the focal point of this study, which can lead to doubts in some presuppositions or ideas accepted by researchers. New pieces of evidence and documents and their interpretations were presented in this study in order, and new interpretations were put on these documents. The research method was descriptive and analytical based on library sources and extraction of textual data of family documents, which was analyzed by presenting scientific approaches and tried to describe the requirements and challenges of researchers in this field. Historiography based on family documents helps to obtain historical and cultural data rarely present in government and official histories and documents and is less relevant to critics and historians. Finally, this research is placed in the field of applied methodology and tries to practice the ways of dealing with and using historical and ethnic data of family documents.

Scientific research includes philosophical, procedural, and ethical steps, and studies with a positivist philosophical premise, which show the recent meta-method reviews, still include a share of more than 70% of studies in humanities and social sciences. From a comparative point of view, it dictates a quantitative approach to researchers. In this approach, entering the field of measurement and then discussing the identification of metrics and linking them with variables or at a more abstract level with structures is, if not the most important, one of the most prominent cases. The vagueness and conceptual immanence of these structures in these sciences makes it more and more difficult for researchers to fully realize validity and reliability. With a scientific review and in a narrative format, focusing on the reliability aspect and the generalizability aspect of the results, the researcher enumerates the weak but unfortunately very common indicators in Iran research literature. Then, with an evaluative and pathological point of view, it proposes a suitable solution to overcome this procedural structural weakness by analyzing and introducing a suitable and operational alternative for it, i.e. McDonald's Omega Coefficient. It was estimated that the results of the present study will create a stable and satisfying perspective in changing the viewpoint of researchers in related humanities fields.

Three intellectuals in entrepreneurship made effective developments in the economy. Neo-classical entrepreneurship with complete rationality and market in equilibrium promises to accept the environmental impact on business. In the critique of the process, Austrian entrepreneurship, by planning the market in equilibrium with entrepreneurial vigilance, considers the opportunity to profit for the entrepreneur. The new institutionalism approach with the design of official and informal institutions and entrepreneurial contracts in the institutional environment attracted attention to productive and destructive entrepreneurship. This paper seeks to introduce new institutionalism, with the theory of ethnic entrepreneurship activity in the form of a united commercial network with ethnic identity and culture, paying attention to confidence among ethnicities for the opportunity to profit and productive entrepreneurship for underdeveloped countries. The results indicate the usefulness of this theory and its application to less developed countries in creating sustainable growth and development for the entrepreneurial environment.

The uniqueness of futures studies epistemology, the nascent nature of transdisciplinary disciplines and the lack of literature in the field of its methodology, has led to a lack of proper integration in this field. For this reason, futures studies methodology, like the field itself, has undergone many changes in the last two decades. Due to this serious weakness, the present study seeks to examine the methodology and construction of a desirable and efficient research design tailored to the growing needs of futures studies to prevent confusion among researchers. Major scientific studies in the field of futures studies methodology focus on distinct methods and their implementation; While methodology in futures studies is not an end in itself, it is used to guide appropriate approaches to mapping reality, that is, the future. In this article, with a focus on descriptive-analytical methodology, a systematic study for the development of research methodology based on the research onion model is conducted and the relationship and adaptation of this model for future research are examined. The present article outlines and explains nine stages of methodological development and construction of a research design for future studies, which begins with the definition of a philosophical position and gradually leads to the construction of a research design.

According to Kuhn, science in general has a paradigm that comprises three elements, namely, epistemology, ontology, methodology. The simplicity paradigm was formed after the Renaissance based on the ideas of Descartes and Newton. The method of understanding was based on the reduction of each phenomenon to its components. From the second half of the nineteenth century, with the discovery of irregular phenomena, quantum theories, and chaos, simplification was challenged and a new approach called the "complexity paradigm" was formed.
The neoclassical, as the representative of the economic mainstream, is dominated by simplicity. New Institutional Economics (NIE) as the dominant institutional approach has a corrective (rather than critical) approach to neoclassical. This issue, in combination with the diverse and complex institutional structures in different societies, defines the purpose of this study to examine the components of complexity in NIE. Scholars introduce these institutions as the structure, rules of interaction, and patterns that govern human life. The findings show that institutional ontology is a complex realism and its methodology is pluralistic. The use of institutions to reduce uncertainty in combination with different mental models suggests that this approach benefits from both objectivism and subjectivism. Given the role of institutions in interaction, it is clear that the Inter- Objectivity of knowledge and strategy is emphasized by institutionalists. Consistent with the results, the NIE is influenced by the complexity.

Although the Walras's framework, as the basis of the micro theory of neoclassical economics in explaining the basis of "economic value", includes the preferences of economic actors (with the nature of subjective categories) in its calculations, But because it considers these preferences fixed, ranked and unrelated to the actions of other people; inevitably, it assigns some value to different goods, which can be considered as the concrete and inherent value of the goods. In this view, money is taken as a secondary entity and merely a counter of the intrinsic value of goods, which facilitates the exchange of goods with intrinsic values as a "neutral medium". On the contrary, in this research, in order to provide an alternative explanation of value and money, a sociological approach is invoked. The specific question of the current research is whether each product has a unique intrinsic and fundamental value? To answer this question, a sociological understanding of economic man has been presented in such a way that if human action is analyzed in the context of society, inherently different results will be obtained. The result of the research indicated that value is not an objective reality separate from the exchange and an intrinsic property of the commodity, but the value is a mental idea arising from collective action and judgment. It is money that can visualize the valuation of goods and facilitate market exchanges by referring to price sets. The feature of money is that it embodies the concept of economic value and, consequently, markets were born. The main implication: contrary to the neoclassical theoretical framework, The intrinsic and fundamental value of a commodity has no place in alternative theory

The main purpose of this study was to investigate how to combine agency and structure in Archer theory. For this purpose, first the theoretical roots of integration are proposed, then Archer's theory of molding is presented with a comparative look at Giddens' theory. Finally, to the research question "What is the process of combining action and structure in Archer's theory?" Has been answered. She has formed her integrated theory by proposing the theory of morphology versus construction. The combination of agency and structure in morphology is as follows; First: pre-existing conditions (structures) that are the basis for social action. Second: the interaction that takes place in this context to achieve certain goals. Third, the consequences of social interaction that may lead to the structural cultivation of conditions of action; In other words, structures and agents are subject to change. Eventually, these agents and altered structures become the context and conditions for subsequent actions.
Keywords: morphology, structuring, combination of agency and structure, critical realism, dialectic.

One of the most important theories of international relations is constructivism, which pays attention to both intellectual and cultural factors as well as material factors in the analysis of international relations and foreign policy. But is constructivism just a theory, or can a research method be derived from it? Some constructivists believe that this theory also has research method. Causal mechanisms are one of the research methods in constructivism.
Some constructivists accept the causality and causal explanation, but do not offer a mechanical or positivist analysis of it. Rather, they combine it with constructivism and pay attention to a concept of causality that also considers the role of imaginary and invisible components. Thus, constructivism believes in causality, but does not consider the cause to be only material issues (such as force, power, war, etc.), It also considers intellectual, cultural and ideological components (such as tradition, religion, society, etc.) as the cause and considers them involved in explaining the cause