Quarterly Journal of Methodology of Social Sciences and Humanities

Based on Shi'a thought, the practical tradition is one of the sources of inference that has not been considered by scholars due to the lack of explanation of the foundations and methods of its use. One way to increase the use of the practical tradition of inference is to explain the beliefs that their acceptance brings more effective practice. The present research has attempted to explain a fundamental belief based on the implications of the practical tradition based on an analytical-exploratory method and, by explaining the consequences of its adoption, to develop methods of deduction from the current tradition. Believing in the independent signification of the practical tradition is one of the effective presuppositions in the development of an inference from the practical tradition, the result of which is the extension of the methods of deduction from the practical tradition in two ways: one: the extraction of the dominant principle and the two: revitalization

This article has attempted to make it possible to compare and analyze different theories of Islamic art and architecture based on their methodological commonalities and differences. The theories are collected using the "documentary" method and their roots, abilities and limitations have classified, criticized and analyzed through Islamic theoretical framework.
The historiographical, traditional, and semantical methods do not have the ability of deserving a theory to be called “Islamic” and the ability of formation of Islamic art and architecture, and do not refer to the "valid resources", Textualist methods deal with resources by “invalid methods” and suffer from a variety of analogies and allegories. Individual jurisprudence, despite being well-equipped with resources and methods, is not equipped with a tool for discovering the relationship between social rules and the control of subject recognition. And the method of the jurisprudence of the systems, which eliminates this defect of individual jurisprudence, requires a logic that establishes the coordination between the methods of subject matter recognition and the Fiqh methods (which used to deliver the sentence of the subject matter). The logic that can be exploited using the findings of the “philosophy of system of guardianship.”.

In this paper, we propose a tool-supported approach for carrying out the literature review in behavioral science research. Review of literature has proved to be a problematic stage for researchers, especially for early career ones. In this model, both a technological tool and a few conceptual tools are introduced such as activity system model, PRISMA model, a model for inclusion and exclusion of literature and a model for search phrases. This technological-conceptual model is then integrated with a model for scoping review and finally, an example illustrates the whole procedure. In addition to simplifying the job of literature review, the model presented in this paper provides a solid ground for systematic study of the literature, a thematic analysis of that, exploring contradictions and conflicts in the literature to picture future steps in that domain and for a clear and comprehensive illustration of the subject under study in the literature

In this research, the methodology of studies in the field of security has been developed. The present research is based on the objective of the developmental research and on the nature of the category of exploratory research. The method of data collection; the field and its tools have been interviewed by experts.
Using qualitative research method and in order to discover the subject, targeted interviews with 20 key experts and experts were conducted using snowball sampling. Then, using the Delphi strategy and deep interviews, the methodology of security studies and the final model was configured.
This research outlines the basic assumptions of a new method of inclusive prediction. The research findings indicate that "methodology" of security studies is the result of the effect and influence of various philosophical, organizational, methodical, social, and individual factors. The results of the research showed that it could be inspired by the approach of competitive values ​​and the placement of philosophical schools in the coordinate axes of that method of amoebic analysis for security studies.

The subject of this research is in which way we can name the part of philosophies or part of the philosophical research into Islamic philosophy. Although in naming something a little relation is sufficient, but in this research we attempt to bring significant relation for this naming. Therefore, this reason is placed on a law of definition: as the definition must be inclusive and exclusive, and equally cover its subjects and equally exclude the other subject, the criterion of the present naming can also be include Islamic philosophies and put other philosophies away. The chosen hypothesis in this article, not only is in accordance with the mentioned law but also possible to be added by more contents

According to a popular version of Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE), the hypothesis that provides the best explanation for a group of phenomena is probably true. One of the key objections against this line of thought is Voltaire’s objection. According to this objection, we have no reason to believe that the criteria for selecting the best explanation provide the likeliest explanation. In this paper, we address Voltaire’s objection from probabilistic (Bayesian) point of view. To be exact, we scrutinize this question: based on probability axioms and their consequences, including Bayes’ theorem, is it justified to think of the best explanation as the likeliest one? Considering this question, first of all, we show that, although IBE is a prima facie case of Bayesianism, probabilistic approach is not fundamentally consistent with IBE. Secondly, it will be argued that the best explanation which is favored over its rivals by scientists is not always the likeliest one. Moreover, we show that Bayes’ theorem overlooks the evidence for which the explanatory hypotheses in IBE compete. Thus, probabilistic approach is unable to settle Voltaire’s objection.

This article is going to disscus about philosophical explanation of the stages and typology of research methodology in psychology. Our method in this article is to analyze the qualitative content of psychology texts and sources and critically examine them with a philosophical rational approach. This study is presented in four sections: reporting, analysis, classification and criticism. Some of which are: The steps of the research method can be divided into four categories: problem statement; research background; data collection; and analysis, interpretation and evaluation of information. According to the three approaches of quantitative, qualitative and mix method research, it can be said that quantity is one of the nine philosophical accidents such as number, form and time and is rooted in the positivist paradigm. Quality in qualitative research method is also one of the accidents dealing with the three categories of sensibility, susceptibility, and psychic qualities. The philosophical foundations of qualitative research methods are interpretive, communicative, reflective, and qualitative. Criticisms of interpretive and critical paradigms are also significant here. The qualitative and quantitative research method, although looking at different paradigms, but because focusing on the single issue, and being complementary of these two approaches the mix method researches are possible.

The literature review obtained from the continuous scientific researches is considered as a great capital for the scientific community, which can play a unique role in the production of knowledge, if exploited appropriately. In this regard, review research is a type of research aimed at independent and systematic study of the literature review for exploring, describing, integrating, explaining or criticizing patterns, relationships, and trends visible in the body of knowledge, which can not easily be addressed through the first-order research and resources. It is sometimes thought that review articles, in contrast to scientific-research articles and similar to scientific-promotional articles, have no particular innovation and merely retell the previous researches results. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the capacity of review research in generating knowledge, conceptualizing different types of these studies and ultimately, providing a comprehensive typology of review articles The results of this study, which have been carried out by Metha-synthesis method suggest that the broad scope of review research can be classified according to the three criteria consisting of scope, organization and study objectives, and  also at least 10 distinct types of review articles can be identified that each one has its own function in the production of knowledge

Despite the fact that Economics uses Mathematics more than other social sciences for explanation and prediction, the application of these methods in Economics has been faced with serious objections. In the present study, while studying the historical course and the theoretical foundations of the application of mathematics in Economics, the most important issues discussed from the viewpoints of advocates and opponents of the mathematical method are discussed and the results and consequences of this methodological approach are explained. The result of the research suggests that mathematics has helped Economics in areas such as modeling, internal consistency, empirical testing, economic policy, and facilitating scientific communication, but the limitations of classical mathematics include criticisms such as extreme simplicity, abstraction and the distance from reality, the weakening of the empirical nature of the Economy, and the elimination of the key elements of Economic analysis on Economics. However, the Economists' tendency to new branches of mathematics, such as game theory, chaos theory and fuzzy logic, has greatly reduced the limitation of elementary models and opened up a new approach to Economics studies

The idea of religious science, despite the attempts made in recent decades by its proponents and opponents, has not yet reached a clear point. This paper aims at revising one of the models of religious science, called the Ijtihadi-Experimental Model, which was first introduced in the early years of the 2000s and gradually expanded along with writing several books and articles. After briefly describing the status of this model among the other models of religious science and introducing the general foundations and methodology of this model, the paper has addressed its ambiguities and problems in ten items. These items are: falling in the trap of experientialism, dependence on Western paradigms, ambiguity in distinguishing between physical and meta-physical levels of science, non-objectivity, inadequacy of religious texts propositions for production of science, probability of falsification of religious propositions, preferring weaker knowledge on stronger knowledge, ambiguity in denomination of religious science, ambiguity in possibility of progress, and non-creativity

The present paper aims to study the concept of method and theory in empirical research. Considering the context of research methodology, the paper identifies different meanings and approaches to these two concepts from both quantitative and qualitative perspectives. First, the properties and dimensions of quantitative and qualitative methodologies in empirical research design are described. Then, the research process in each of these two approaches is considered after a comparative analysis between the two by considering the similarity and difference aspects. Accordingly, the nature of the theory as an integral part of the method in empirical research is analyzed based on these two perspectives, along with their integration. Finally, by using the concept of “typology of theories” and the concept of “hermeneutic cycle”, the present study tries to represent the relationship between method and theory in empirical research and explains the role of “theoretical framework” in these kinds of research designs

Though not leading necessarily to order and preventing violations and transgressions of citizens, the laws get together a sense of relative public order and prevent violations of abnormal individuals through regulating and approving rules. Due to the nature of legal rules and raising level of mankind culture and civilization over the course of time, it behooves the laws and rules to be adjusted based on culture and convention of target community. Regarding present ineffectiveness and abandonment of past ratified conventional or legal rules and regulations on the one side and dynamic or community affected legal identities on the other side, reforming the rules is necessary to establish order and facilitate social life. Employing the library method and theoretically, this research seeks to answer the question of which measures can be employed to reform the laws in proportion to dynamics of legal identities. Considering the subject, goal, time and place of researchers, causal, historical, comparative, ethical, and case study measures can be employed to provide the preliminary arrangements of reformation.

Positivism and Interpretivism have many applications but in face with power relations they cannot do more things and in this battle they fail. Third paradigm (critical realism approach) is suitable there. It has a powerful potential for influence under power relationships that are complicatedly mixed with social reality. Although critical approach is useful for the purpose, it suffers from something; this paradigm does not have any positive method for doing experimental research in social areas. For this reason, this research is going to define a new method based on critical approach.
In this line, the research is presented "Critical Analysis Method" through exploring, studying more and justifying the perception of the critical approach. The new method is based on protecting three subjects: "Interviewee", "Interviewer" and "Reader". In this method the central point is to emphasize on the being subject of the three. The point helps it to be as a scientific method and as the same time penetrate power relations.

Retroduction research strategy based on realistic philosophy is one of the four research strategies in the social sciences, which despite the necessary philosophical and methodological foundations, due to the complexity of the mechanism explanation and the lack of appropriate research tools, has put researchers in this field in serious trouble. Realistic (theory driven) interviewing is an emerging tool that has tried to compensate for existing shortcomings. Lack of sufficient methodological literature for conducting such a type of interview, especially in the scientific community of the country, motivated the researcher, in addition to explaining the theoretical foundations and enumerating the distinctive aspects of its components compared to common interviews in both quantitative and qualitative traditions, to describe its implementation methods as well. Findings reveal that the distinctive identity of the realistic interview due to the researcher's theory assignment as the subject of negotiation in the interview, embedding teaching-learning and conceptual focus functions, the dynamic and expert-centered role of the researcher in conducting the interview and different criteria in compiling, analyzing and validating the findings, takes the function of this interview beyond the typical level of regulation or mere interpretation of data.

Design science has recently been considered as a research methodology that differs methodologically and philosophically from conventional methodologies. This methodology goes beyond descriptive-explanative researches and takes steps to solve problems. Though this methodology uses the research qualitative and quantitative instruments in the process of data-gathering and data-analyzing, the aim of the research is not to provide a mere description or explanation of problems or phenomena but to solve a social-technical problem through designing an artefact, model, procedure, and so on.
Despite the importance of this methodology in areas such as management, information technology management, policy-making, and some other areas in social science, little attention has been given to it in Iran. That is why, lacking a solution-oriented attitude, almost all the published research papers in the field of social science concentrates on the description or explanation of problems or phenomena. In this article, while introducing and analyzing design science as a research methodology, exploring its philosophical foundations, and presenting the common frameworks in this field, we will examine its application in Iran

The present work aims to study and critically analyse Taha Hussein’s reading on Ibn Khaldun’s thoughts. To this end, by employing the documentary and historical methods, we give a comprehensive review and analysis of the Taha Hussein’s readings on Ibn Khaldun’s contemplations. Furthermore, we evaluate and criticize Taha Hussein’s account of Ibn Khaldun based on the theoretical, social and intellectual backgrounds of both. It is argued that Taha Hussein has carried out his critiques from his modern and positivistic point of view, while Ibn Khaldun had been highly influenced by the Ashari tradition atmosphere of his time which comprises a completely distinguished idea on society, history, causality, etc., than the modern one. Consequently, our analysis leads to the conclusion that Taha Hussein’s critiques dismiss Ibn Khaldun's distinctive social and intellectual backgrounds and hence in many cases appear to be arguably imprecise and incorrect. In other words, Ibn Khaldun’s works and thoughts have to be read and perceived based on his own Ashari worldview.

Futures studies is now present in scientific spheres as an independent and structured field of study and forms the basis of strategic studies and investigations. Futures studies is the science of intelligent analysis, exploration, designing and building of future and therefore is rooted in human prudence system and emphasizes the conscious and proactive engineering, creation and restructuring of future. Futures studies, and the key issue of future discovery and shaping, is conducted through basic fundamentals, principles and rules which are reflected on cogent theoretical and conceptual frameworks called paradigms. These paradigms manage the organization of observations, framing of perceptions and orientation of actions. Having based on a descriptive-analytical methodology, the present paper explains the concept and logic of paradigms, and then reads the conventional paradigms of futures studies, namely positivist, evolutionary and critical paradigms. Finally, the emerging paradigm of integral futures is mapped and processed. The paradigmatic shift and transition led to the emergence of the integral futures denotes the capacity development of futures studies in problem-tackling and its evolution into a meta-natural field of study.

Information and communication technology may penetrates the family in a useful or harmful way to the functioning and growth of family members or the family system. But why are the research results so contradictory in examining the impact of information and communication technology on family relationships? There are many reasons for this discrepancy. One reason for this lack of consensus is the absence of a coherent model. More research on the impact of ICT on the family are performed with accepted models and with known independent variables and they often Ignored the impact of complex human, textual, cultural, and technological issues. So, a model is needed to properly examine the impact of technology on the structural and emotional relationships of the family. The conceptual model of the impact of information and communication technology on the family seeks to organize existing literature, direct future research, and apply existing results and information.

Social systems are completely affected by the complexity rooted in its nature. While the social system inherited attributes of lower level systems, but it has some distinctive attributes. The main question here is, what those common and distinctive attributes are in social systems, and how different methodologies responded to these attributes. The current paper is aimed at presenting a definition for social systems, studying its attributes, and presenting a framework to help researchers select the best approach in analyzing different social systems according to the characteristics of the understudy situation. In the current article, first the nature of social systems and its complexity is explained. Then, the abilities of reductionist and systems approaches in studying social systems discussed. In the following, different systems’ approaches in the form of soft and hard approaches are explained and appropriate context of using each of them, or their combination are clarified. Researchers could use the results of this article to select the appropriate methodology regards the intended problematic situation characteristics.

In the public sector of Islamic economy, a wide range of issues bordering on ethical, social, political and cultural considerations are taken into account, in the evaluation and selection of public policies and programs; but it doesn't mean that in the Islamic public policy sector, decisions are taken with an endless ideology and without a logical framework. A study of the views shows that the evaluation of policies and programs in Islamic economy has a multi-layered structure. In the first layer (virtuous politics), all general public criteria (legitimacy, efficiency, equality, freedom and independence) are evaluated in the program, and none is sacrificed because of conflicting situations. In the second layer (jurisprudence of priority), conflicting situations are considered and using the rules and priority criteria, all the public policies and programs are classified into the four objectives of "preserving the principle of Islam and the Islamic system", "preserving the lives of people", "preserving social excellence" and "preserving the growth of material well-being ". Each of these is ranked in three levels of "necessities", "requirements", and "ornaments". In the third layer (jurisprudence of weighing), the policies and programs are ordered one after another, using the criteria for measuring and social costs-benefit analysis at the level of the "ultimate expediency of each case", and whatever is likely to have more benefit to the Muslim community is chosen.

Entrepreneurship is a complex and multilevel phenomenon, based on critical realism, complex phenomena such as entrepreneurship occur in open systems and act at different levels of reality; in order to study of the exact nature of such phenomenon, it is necessary to use the appropriate methodology. The core of entrepreneurship is new venture creation, which could be defined as a dynamic process and an open system; that phenomenon drived from interactions of individual, organizational, and environmental elements, and are affected by various factors. The purpose of this research is to introduce and present a combined systemic methodology for entrepreneurship researches and especially studies related to new venture creation, that done by narrative reviewing systemic methodologies in the field of business. Since entrepreneurship involves both mental aspects and visible and measurable aspects; therefore, to studying it, can not only use soft systems thinking and soft system methodology, or hard systems thinking and system dynamics. Thus in entrepreneurship researches, for the modeling of the entrepreneurship process in the form of a dynamic system, can use the soft systems dynamics methodology that has developed from the combination of the soft systems methodology and system dynamics in recent decades.

Instead of discussing the quality of the application of scientific theories, the fundamental methodology examines the way in which they evolve and pursue its epistemological and non-epistemological existential grounds. This research seeks to address the fundamental methodology of feminist thought in its productive culture and the implications of the introduction of this theory into Iran. The epistemological transformations in the field of science, which led to a change in the positivist approach to scientific knowledge, and the emergence of existentialist philosophies that challenged the essentialist approaches to man and the universe were among the most important existential fields of feminist thought in the West, and A critique of the social unequal social status of women, as opposed to the men and policies of the capitalist system in the labor market, is one of the underlying causes of the non-adjective feminism in the West. Also, the introduction of feminist ideas into Iran was carried out on non-adjective and non-adverbial pretexts, and the result was an incompatibility of this theory with the culture of Iranian society.

Intertextuality, refers to the nested network of communication of texts. With regard to the theory and method, the position of intertextuality has been investigated and the question is: is a methodological view of intertextuality fundamentally justifiable? Intertextuality as a postmodern concept is at the crossroads of falling into the abyss of conceptual reductionism on the one hand and being confined to the abstraction of theory on the other hand. The answer to this question in this paper is a conditional "yes". Intertextuality is a method, provided that the abstract concept of intertextuality is reduced to something like traditional critique of references. The lack of attention of the early founders of the word intertextuality, such as Kristeva and Barthes, to apply intertextuality method, the warning of intertextuality reduction to source and the emphasis on theory instead of the method posed a challenge that led the next generation of intertextuality researchers to intertextuality method and application. Analysis of intertextual theory, its reduction to the method and its use in a scientific research is one of the main objectives of this study.

Although economists typically try to make their theories free from ethical evaluations, their theories are value laden. In this paper, we examine the impact of ethical schools on economic policies. The findings of the paper show that consequential, deontological, virtue-based and rights-based ethics have a particular impact on economic policy making. These approaches, while affecting the definition of the goals of economic policies, provide the basis for establishing the principles that define the framework of economic policies for achieving those goals. The result of this trend is that neoclassical utilitarian economists, with an emphasis on the role of complete competition market for achieving welfare, propose price policies to compensate market failure. The policy orientation in the capability-based approach of Sen and rights-based Contractarianism of Rawls, through the creation of changes in the structure of the market and the introduction of new institutions, is respectively, human development and the provision of basic goods to the poorest of the community. The feminist virtue-based economists also propose the promotion of the role of women's caring activities in their policy orientations.

The purpose of this study is to investigate Malik Bennabi's method in the acquisition of social cognition with emphasis on both his community survey strategy and his way of data analysis. The two main parts in this research are as follows: 1. Malik's social exploration method 2. His data interpretation method. To clear these issues, a systematic process was undertaken to read and critically classify the works of Bennabi. Investigations carried out in the present study yielded the finding that Bennabi considers environmental, civilizational, human and cultural aspects in the study of society. In cognitive analysis of society, his emphasis is on social subject priorities, social classes and their effectiveness, the quality of triple worlds, and the coefficients of internal and external factors. The authors of this study believe that by developing such studies on Muslim thinkers one can gain a clearer understanding of the theoretical structure of Muslim scholars' thought.

sources (books and traditions)or secondary sources(fatwas and concepts)or a combination of the two to discover school theories, while explaining the operation of discovery: Islamic theories based on Islamic law and Discover concepts.In the present article,based on his performance and based on the analysis of the principles of jurisprudence and philosophy of science,the correct method of citation in recognizing school theories is judged.
To cite primary or secondary sources in the discovery of religious theories, the following assumptions can be made: 1.The distinction between religious theory and its source, in reference to secondary and primary sources.3.Separation between types of religious theory, in reference to primary and secondary sources.3.Refer to secondary sources assuming no access to primary resources.4.Refer to primary sources if there are no secondary sources. Hypotheses one and two are rejected, hypothesis three is acceptable, and hypothesis four is acceptable. Hypothesis four is based on the ranking between sciences, the affirmative precedence of"jurisprudence of theory"over"jurisprudence of rulings" and the positive delay of" jurisprudence of theory" from "jurisprudence of rulings".The dichotomy between real and apparent judgment does not impair the validity of Shahid Sadr's performance in citing secondary sources.

This study is aimed to achieve the foundations of social constructionism by using analytical method. Using analytical method, dissection of the social constructionism’s foundations will be the main aim of this study. To achieve social constructionism’s foundations, after preparing a definition, its differences with constructivism, its types, features, and roots were examined. The results showed that despite being realistic with regards to ontology, as soon as talking about the reality, social constructivism changes to a constructed phenomenon, which adopts a critical and pluralistic stand. Knowledge, in this perspective, is the product of social interactions. Furthermore, constructionism, regarding ethics and values, treats with respect to the values of other cultures and believes in toleration. Thus, social constructionism is based on a relative and pluralistic ontology, epistemology, and axiology. Viewing from an anthropological point of view, social constructionists, are also known as anti-essentialism and anti-individualism and the human is considered as a social animal. Finally, they assign both individual and society as the origin of effect.

The method of Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) was first introduced by Ragin and then applied in the various disciplines of social sciences by many scholars to explain their interested outcomes. This methodology is important because it has adopted characteristics from both quantitative and qualitative approaches; in fact, it is simultaneously variable-oriented and case-oriented, so the researcher can do causal research as well as gather some in-depth historical information on each case. In this article, at first, the mentioned method and its different types is reviewed. Then, the public policy researches conducted by Qualitative Comparative Analysis are classified into public policy fields, policy and politics, policy process, policy analysis and evaluation, and policy implementation. In fact, the purpose of this article is to introduce a method for an outcome explanation to policy scholars and policy makers, in order to apply it as well as other common methods. Certainly, scholars could find other applications of Qualitative Comparative Analysis in addition to the reviewed ones.

I have tried to retrieve Newton’s scientific method. To do so, I raise two principal questions: 1. What is Newton’s evolving scientific method that he devised in The Principia and Opticks during a period of fifty years? 2. Can we now, after more than three hundred years, claim with certainty that we know what Newton’s scientific method is?
Conclusions reached:
In order to make those theories readily believable and simultaneously reject those of rival Cartesians, Newton modifies the rules of ‘the game of science’ making them compatible with his theories.
Newton skillfully devises those rules compatible with his ‘physical’ views, in such a way that anyone who accepts those rules would be inclined to infer his theistic belief-system.
Newton does not modify any of his ‘physical’ views in the various editions of The Principia. He introduces some new rules for the ‘game of science’ and invalidates current rules.
Contrary to Newton’s methodological prohibitions about proposing hypotheses which was propounded for his opponents, in practice he had no reservation to engage in hypothesizing.

There is clear need for methodological and scientific evaluating of new methological approaches in social science researches in the country; For overcoming this need there must be a standard criterion i.e. offering a pattern for methodological evaluating of new social/humanity studies in Iran is a necessary condition to show us the methodological situation of every social/humanity studies.
In this article, we try to have impartial view about the different approaches in the structure of all social and human sciences paradigms. By this approach, we seek different properties of scientific researches, which in the first step that can bring us a kind of scientific systemization for researches. This pattern by penetrating the basic foundations of social/human sciences give us a three basic layers for scientific evaluating and finding the methodological situation of new studies.

Common sense realism and scientific realism are two metaphysical thesis. The former accepts the existence of the observable entities of common sense knowledge and the later accepts the unobservable entities necessary for the well-established scientific theories. Common sense realism and scientific realism are defended or rejected by some philosophers with reliance on the evolutionary approach. Studying these arguments shows there are positive evidences to the advantage of both subjects; realism and anti-realism, But skeptical consequences of evolutionary approach to science is a source for a new idea to specify science and to develop the scientific epistemology. In this article، in addition to investigating the above local reasonings to the advantage of Van Fraasson's evolutionary explanation will be adopted for science and scientific epistemology growth on the basis of specifying evolutionary; the third position which between realism and belief in miracle is in specifying the success of science. In this approach, the evolutionary approach, the production of resistant and abiding models is the main goal of science and philosophy and the scientific realism is also one of the abiding models.

The nature of research in the field of education is mainly dynamic, unpredictable, and multidimensional; However, the majority of the existing research methods have a linear and staggered structure, which are merely pre-tailored to the prevailing research approach. This research is aimed to introduce the emerging research method, which is the forefront horizon in education research methodologies. The nature of this method is first analyzed using a descriptive method. Subsequently, the necessity of this method is presented according to the specific requirements of research in the field of education. The results show that the timely nature of the education process, the importance of individual differences, and the necessity of the empathy between the researcher and the human variables involved in the research are not fully considered in current education research methodologies; This is while the emerging research method, with its non-linear and unregulated structure, is adaptive to various educational situations, and by not limiting the researcher in the process steps, can well consider these aspects during the research.

This article aims at suggesting a new account of the distinction between basic and applied research which I call the functionalist account. In nearly all science and technology policy documents, the distinction is drawn in terms of the linear model of innovation which is not historically adequate. Upon the two conceptions of science representation and design plan, this new account discards the priority of basic over applied research which the linear model is based on. Instead, the functionalist account focuses on the social aspects and the context of use in which the final and intermediate outcomes of research are understood. To support this new account, I will next briefly review the development of transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the middle of the twentieth century. Finally, some research and education policy suggestions of this account will be considered.

The history of culture in Iran has been studied and researched in the framework of historical and sociological knowledge, but the cultural approach to historical categories and subjects does not have much history. "Cultural history" as a scientific approach derived from interdisciplinary studies has become relatively coherent over the past three decades. This event is the result of the accumulation of historians' experiences and the confrontation of contemporary methods and theories and its integration with other sciences, especially cultural studies, anthropology and cultural anthropology. Combining the methods of historical studies with other sciences, especially the social sciences, provided the basis for "historiography" to move away from its traditional methods and give way to "historical research." The diversity of "subject" and "method" in historical studies can be seen more than anywhere else in the important and influential works written in the second half of the twentieth century.give way to "historical research." The diversity of "subject" and "method" in historical studies can be seen.

Criticisms of the dominant paradigms of the science, especially the positivism and the interpretive paradigms, have intensified efforts to find alternative paradigms. One of the paradigms that has emerged in this regard is critical realism. This paradigm has created a reconciliation between the two rival paradigms by borrowing ontology from positivism and epistemology from interpretivism. Critical realism claims that can lead us to deeper understanding of the phenomena and it`s generative mechanisms by stratified ontology of it, that considers reality in three empirical, actual and real layers. But despite of the positive role of this paradigm in better understanding of the phenomena, methodology of it is still unclear and a few researches have been done in this paradigm. Therefore, in this article, after introducing the concepts, assumptions and theoretical foundations of critical realism, an attempt has been made to study its methodology from the perspective of different researchers. Finally, a practical example of research conducted under the banner of this paradigm is described to shed light on research in critical realism.

The critique of philosophical foundations of neoclassical economics is significant, because of its hegemony on economic education and research programs in Iran and worldwide academies. Due to an epistemological fallacy, methodological individualism plays a prominent role in the philosophy of economic; since the ontological aspects of economy are reduced to methodological considerations. Accordingly, critique of methodological individualism is regarded as the main entry for philosophical analysis of neoclassical economics. This article aims to analyze and appraise the methodological individualism from critical realism’s point of view. Critical realism is taken as a stand for criticizing methodological individualism, because critical realism and neoclassical economics as a positive approach to economics, both share a realistic worldview. The critical realism’ critique of methodological individualism is bases on analyzing the concepts of formalism, syllogism, social atomism, isolation and reduction. From critical realism’ point of view because of unrealistic postulations of methodological individualism, neoclassical economics is turned to an abstract and deductive science such as mathematics with a low potentiality of explanation.

The multilevel approach to theory building with the simultaneous understanding of phenomena at multiple levels of analysis provides opportunities for developing new theories with a rich context and more effective data interpretation. Single-level approaches to theory building are not able to explain the complexity of phenomena, because phenomena have antecedents, mediators, moderators, and consequences that are at different levels. In the field of entrepreneurship, we see the predominance of single-level theories. The existing theories in the field of entrepreneurship have examined the micro or macro levels separately and by ignoring the middle level and the interaction between the levels, they have not been able to present a holistic picture of entrepreneurial phenomena that reflects their complexities. Therefore, correct, rich, comprehensive and valuable insights are not obtained from theories. In the few existing multi-level theories, a proper and comprehensive approach to theorizing has not been adopted. Based on this, this research, while explaining the necessity and nature of multilevel theory building and its various approaches, presents an improved approach through the analysis and criticism of existing approaches. In the improved approach, steps such as the emergence of collective phenomena, identification of the function and structure of phenomena, rules of interaction between constructs, flexibility of levels, validity of constructs, confirmation or operationalization of theory and interpretation of results are proposed.  In addition, new developments in this approach such as the role of people in shaping the organizational context are proposed. It is expected that the results of this research will change the views of single-level researchers and provide a suitable practice guide for interdisciplinary theorists interested in multi-level studies.

What has formed the main purpose of the current research is the analysis of a mysterious field of knowledge called common sense. This research, in fact, has determined the contemplation of an epistemic field as its fundamental goal which should be considered as the opposite side of the scientific knowledge field. Since this opposition is based on the specific epistemology and methodology of each of these fields, the upcoming research has disclosed common sense from two epistemological and methodological aspects. This research has shown that the aforementioned field of knowledge has such bonds with interference, entanglement and ambiguity that any kind of epistemologically disclosure of it should always pay attention that it is faced with the embodiment of indeterminability, uncertainty and undecidability. The current research, in addition, has shown that what should be counted as the turning point of the methodological disclosure of common sense is the authority of this epistemic domain in a form of human being that prefers people over things.

In recent years, implementing mission-oriented innovation policies to address grand societal challenges has been pursued in various countries. As a result, there has been a substantial increase in theoretical discussions about the policies and related issues. One difficulty with mission-oriented innovation policies is their centralized character in challenge identification and mission definition. Identifying grand challenges and defining missions within a mission-oriented innovation policy are seen as centralized and top-down. There are several objections to the top-down approach to defining missions. Some researchers also argue that although traditional mission-oriented innovation policies embed a top-down approach in defining missions, it is not the case with modern mission-oriented policies that aim to address grand societal challenges and have diffusion-oriented and bottom-up aspects. However, the alternative bottom-up approach is also subject to several objections. In this paper, after considering the objections the top-down and/or bottom-up approaches encounter, a combined approach to challenge identification and mission definition is proposed based on the requirements a research mission should fulfill, which does not face the problems of the existing approaches.

Keywords

Medicalization is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment. In this process, biomedical science is used to explain social harms and provide ways to eliminate and prevent them. Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist and physician and founder of the positivist school of criminology in the 19th century, was one of the pioneers of the medicalization of crime. Lombroso suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies. In this article, we try to examine the process of medicalization of crime in his works. In the first step, we show that the basic premise of his research is based on Lamarck and Darwin's theory of evolution. He believed that the characteristics of criminals indicate an atavistic origin, that they reproduce the physical-psychological conditions of their distant ancestors. In fact, crime is a symptom of the primitive instincts that lie in the criminal, and criminals are a manifestation of returning to a primitive or subhuman type of human beings. His method at this stage was using phrenology and anthropometry. In the second step, we show that his method is based on model of thinking and reasoning in medicine. Lombroso tried to provide criteria for distinguishing criminals from normal people according to normal and abnormal in pathology.

Policy makers’ mental models provide a sound basis for Public policies’ forms and contents in every state. Interaction and discourse of the models (dynamics of models) can improve the context quality for policies’ formation. In process of public policy analysis, having an explanation for assumptions, values and mental models of policy makers is the most important function of policy analysts. One of the most common methods in this area is drawing of public policy makers’ cognitive maps. In this article, the method is explored and analyzed in terms of entity, historical evolution, a way of implementation (data elicitation, coding rules, merging and standardization, intercoder reliability, validity and reliability), an applied case in policy making field (presenting and interpreting Excerpt from a pre-crisis cognitive map of former German Chancellor Angela Merkel)  as well as criticism of it. Finally, Implications of the method for policy researchers are presented. This method elicits underlying values and assumptions easier, and less costly than many other eliciting methods.

The rule of law of the social world and the taking of a reasoned position on the contribution of each is one of the fundamental issues of the philosophy of social sciences. The law-based approach with the model authority of the natural sciences and the perception of the human world as part of the realm of the natural world with distinctive features, the purpose of social science to explain the causal relationships between social actions / phenomena and the discovery of law in a way Knows deductive; While the rule-based approach, believing in the intentionality, meaningfulness, normativeness, contextuality and purposefulness of human actions, the goal of social science is interpretive understanding (empathetic or hermeneutic) or understanding of human phenomena and cognition and Inference knows the reasons of the actors. Collectively, they have considered the purpose of these sciences as combination, understanding and explanation or explanatory understanding; Others have reinforced the causal position, albeit with a different interpretation, by reading it causally, and their causal role in action.
The present article seeks to discuss this deep and decisive conflict along with the principles, assumptions, effects, and conceptual results and methods of each of the preferred positions. The method of this study is as a collection, documentation and as an analysis and evaluation, the concept of mining and validation of the affirmative and affirmative evidence of each of the mentioned approaches.

Nowadays, the use of design thinking methodology in organization and management studies is increasing. In Iran within the field of organization and management, there is still a gap between thinking, formulation, and action, and the application of design thinking has been undeveloped conceptually and methodologically. The goal of this study is to explain discourses of design thinking, principles, models, and methods. The methodology of the study is based on a qualitative approach using secondary data content analysis and general qualitative research strategy. According to the study results, design thinking is rooted in two discourses of design and management, although with distinct applications. In this study, human-centered design, a combination of divergent and convergent thinking, co-creation, Iteration, and prototyping were identified as the five principles of design thinking in the field of the organization. In the following, the design thinking models of leading organizations were classified based on phases, stages and activities of design thinking and some of its most common methods were explained. Design thinking models are mainly process-based and can be summarized in four stages of exploration, creation, reflection, and implementation. Finally, research and operational suggestions for the use of design thinking in organizational and management problems with regard to the problem characteristics, level of analysis, and expected outputs are presented. These are unlimited to management science and will be used in other social sciences.

< p >The psychoanalysis of Jacques Lacan''s thought transcended the boundaries of his field, overshadowing the social, literary, and cinematic arenas. This process shows that psychoanalysis will no longer be reduced to an individual mentality and will continue to expand. Also, political science has come up with new theories that "the personal is political", and its concern is no longer just government, comparative politics, and the constitution. With the relationship between power and knowledge that came with Michel Foucault''s thoughts, we can no longer impose limits on politics. This article attempts to interconnect the gradual expansion of the two fields. This article tries to bridge the gradual expansion of the two disciplines and open a new horizon for political science. This horizon is associated with presenting a new narrative of society''s identity processes by investigating the acceptance or avoidance of other identities through the use of an Imaginary Order and Identification. Beliefs in the symbolic order will lead to the transition from formal political institutions to a system of signs to examine the subjugation of subjects and to explain identity conflicts. Contrary to structuralism, the use of real order, trauma, and fantasy lead to the acceptance that a revolution can be created. Finally, presenting a complex and delicate narrative of the issue of the subject-authority relationship while studying political phenomena can breathe new life into political theory and sociopolitical analysis.

In order to enable the application of the ijtihad method in the humanities, this article explores the leadership style in Islamic management, using Islamic teachings and based on ijtihad analysis.
Findings of this study show that ijtihad method is a combined method that is related to the combined knowledge of management from the branches of humanities and the method of Islamic leadership as one of the subjects of humanities in the field of ijtihad method can be analyzed. Considering the ijtihad method in Islamic teachings, there are two categories of propositions, in both of which there is a part of Quranic propositions and a part of narrative propositions.
Some of the first category statements directly depict the ruler or leader's relationship with followers and how they interact with them; However, some of these statements are general speeches that can be applied to the style of absolute softness; Therefore, it can be said that this category of propositions implies softness and absolute friendliness, and the second category of Qur'anic and narrative propositions emphasizes the mixing of softness with intensity of action; According to these two categories of propositions, according to the principles of jurisprudence and jurisprudence in the ijtihad method, it is possible to be in the position of a combination of propositions wherever a group of propositions (arguments) imply an absolute subject, at the same time a group Other propositions imply the same subject, carried absolute propositions to the constraint; What is more, according to the rule of "the plural is important, the first possibility of my plan", the arguments that are absolute can be carried on, so it can be inferred that in the leadership style, both flexibility and intensity of action are necessary; Hence, the result of ijtihad analysis is that leadership in Islamic management is a mixture of "maximum flexibility and minimum intensity."

Choosing any device of the axiomatic system can limit the level of our access to the real things and consequently our knowledge of the world around us to the principles of that device. This article tries to examine this issue from the perspective of the philosophy of science and shows how this issue has been addressed in the book “Theory of Games and Economic Behavior” by John von Neumann and Oscar Morgenstern. For this reason, several main axes such as "rationality", "determinism the system of a game", "equilibrium" and "the principle of ceteris paribus" are considered as principles in economics and how these axioms are placed within the system of Mathematical axiomatic system of game theory. Our general view is that one of the reasons that game theory cannot describe and analyze economic behavior, in general, is that it considers the world as a single-order system, and therefore the causal chain in this system is very long, while Self-organizing systems seek to create multidisciplinary organizations and are therefore willing to add to the complexity of the system for this purpose. Mathematics has a tool called isomorphism to compare order between two structures, but there is no such tool in economics, and so we often do not know that we are operating within two systems with different orders.

The presentation of a universal and ahistorical criterion has always been of interest to rationalists in order to rely on it to evaluate theories and to provide a criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science. This effort, which has so far yielded no results, has always been criticized by relativists. Relativists who see any reliance on the evaluation and adoption of scientific theories, including observations, as being influenced by social factors and political powers. Bhaskar, contrary to the rationalist approach, does not believe in a objective criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science, with a layered description of nature, makes the knowledge of the world conditional on purposeful and creative action with it. He considers scientific activity to be based on theorizing about the mechanisms of the underlying layers and to test them in the laboratory, and to defend the rationality of science with his own approach. In this article, we refer to the rationalist and relativist debate and explain Bhaskar's rational account of scientific activity. We will also argue that Bhaskar's description of scientific activity, his attention to the causal powers of things, and his special interest in experiment, have at their heart a methodological code called experimentation, which provides both a position against relativism and makes it possible to defend the possibility of scientific progress.

One of Searle's most important philosophical endeavors is to resolve the new conflicts that have arisen in the field of philosophy of mind. For this reason, as a philosopher of the mind, he seeks to address the challenges that the findings of biological neuroscience poes to purely philosophical metaphysics. The main purpose of this article is to examine Searle's view on the subject and the author's aim is to show that Searle's ontological explanation is intentionally problematic based on the approach of physicalism, although he uses sound methods and premises. This study has been done in two general axes. First, Searle's view of intentionality is explained and examined, then how he responds to conflicts arising from the naturalistic biological neurology. Examining Searle,s view and paying attention to the criticisms we have made of his view , it is clear that even if there is no challenge between the topics of biological neurology and the metaphysical discussion of intent- which is itself a point of connection- the will does not seem to be Searl's philosophical science is sufficient to solve this challenge.

Dilthey has sought to turn Kant's "critique of pure reason" into a "critique of historical reason" in the humanities, in order to provide both an independent position for the humanities and a new meaning of objectivity in this field. Gadamer rebuked him with his critiques, claiming that Dilthey had fallen into the trap of scientific objectivity and had unconsciously followed the tradition of Neokantism, which was prevalent in his day; despite his historical thinking, Dilthey has not been faithful to all the tools and results of this thinking in his system of thought.
In this article, we show how the foundation of the living world and the dilthey hermeneutic method are laid out in "history". The relation between "history", "erlebnis" and, ultimately, "hermeneutics" is the relation between "appearance and interior", which due to man's infinity, his relation to history and historical self-consciousness have found such a distinction, "history" is the "erlebnis" in unarticulated position and "erlebnis" is the same as "history" in the field of openness; "Hermeneutics" is also the logic of this relation and knowledge that has changed this appearance and interior from the position of "conciseness and presence" to the position of "detail and achievement"; Of course, in the light of such a view, what guarantees the objectivity and objective position of the (human) sciences is neither man, nor the erlebnis, nor history.

The present article seeks to analyze the basic patterns of modern management and to provide a comparative model of Islamic management based on the global foundations of management philosophy. To this end, first the global model of producing management paradigm was explained, then the following Islamic principles were applied to obtain a specific adaptive model of Islamic management. During the research process, the philosophical paradigms of modern management were first extracted and categorized from international sources. The findings of this classification show that the ontological paradigms of ontology and epistemology coexist in most management schools and are the basis for distinguishing different management schools from each other. Also, this systematic classification can lead to the extraction of a comprehensive global model for the production of the management paradigm. The research method in this research is comparative. Comparative study is in fact a method of study that puts phenomena together and analyzes them in order to enumerate the points of difference and similarity. Finally, Islamic ontological and epistemological foundations were comparatively placed in a paradigmatic model and a specific paradigmatic model of Islamic management was extracted. This model is formed based on the creation-divine ontology and the divine-theological epistemology.

Over the past decade, we have increasingly realized that when we try to replicate the data which are published in influential scientific journals, the initial results are not obtained. In other words, the stated findings of the articles which are published in the experimental sciences, including medicine and psychology, are generally invalid. This phenomenon has led to a crisis in the experimental sciences, known in 2012 as the "replication crisis." In the present article, first, the crisis is introduced and a brief account of the opinions of the scientists about the severity of the crisis is produced. Then, five possible causes for its occurrence are introduced. The claim of the article is that the most important cause for the crisis of reproducibility of scientific results of academic articles should be sought in the wrong policies of the academic institute or funding bodies of putting pressure on scientists to publish articles (publish or perish). In the final section, some solutions, corresponding to the five causes which are identified, to alleviate the crisis are presented . Two of these solutions, namely, expanding the domain of the “open science” and secondly, reducing the role of articles in assessing the competence of researchers and academics are introduced as the main strategies to alleviate the crisis.

Keywords

    Reproducibility Crisis Statistics P Value Cognitive bias Open Science

In this paper, the philosophy of post-phenomenology has been discussed. Post-phenomenology is a new approach in the philosophy of technology, which especially emphasizes the role of technology in changing human experiences and perceptions. First, the relationship between post-phenomenology and phenomenology and then the relationship between post-phenomenology and pragmatism is mentioned. It has been stated that post-phenomenology is a philosophy combined with pragmatism and classical phenomenology. Post-phenomenology, while retaining some features of classical phenomenology and setting aside some other features, including the emphasis on opposition to essentialism, has led to the philosophy being called a kind of pragmatic phenomenology. In the following, Post-phenomenological research methods are discussed, in this regard, methods are introduced and discussed, which include methods such as interviewing participants, observing participants, reporting first-person experiences, interviewing objects, and Robert Rosenberger's proposed method. All of these methods ultimately examine the relationship between humans and technologies and the changes that result from these relationships in different ways.

Entrepreneurship in tourism as an emerging discipline, but with increasing growth, has attracted the attention of scholars of various disciplines through their interdisciplinary background. Research in this area, however, faces the same methodological and research weaknesses, and the results do not pave the way for entrepreneurs and policymakers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and analyze the methodology of studies in this field using meta-analysis. Statistical population includes all articles published in domestic journals in the field of tourism entrepreneurship. Sampling was done through a whole-body method and 44 articles were selected. The methodology of Sanders et al. introduced and used to evaluate and analyze the articles. The results show that research in this field is mainly conducted in the positivist paradigm, since entrepreneurship in tourism is in the conceptualization and theorizing stage, research in this field requires fundamental orientations with exploratory goals, qualitative and synthetic approaches, grounded theory strategies, and comparative and deductive approaches. Finally, suggestions for future research are presented

Kant in Critique of Judgment, regards nature as the system of purposes, and contrary to the cause and effect system and the mechanistic approach that dominated his philosophy in the critique of pure reason, teleology and the teleological approach became the most important feature of Kant's third critique. Konigsberger's philosopher in the confrontation with nature, especially in organisms and animals and plants, finds that mechanistic approach could not be explained, so without denying the causality principle, he resorted to the principle of teleology in nature, attributing the former to the phenomenal world, and the second to the nominal world, because man is a citizen of both worlds.
Natural purpose or organic beings are the most important beings that Kant explain with his teleological approach. They are their cause and their effect, and on the other hand produce their own kind, as well as their survival and growth done through themselves, that way, they absorb substances from the outside and give them their own face.
In Kant's view, the ultimate purpose can only be human because he is capable to developing the purposes and by human will as the moral being that nature can be teleological, and determination the purpose by human will is culture or nurture, and thereby giving value to nature, otherwise nature and the creatures in it were in vain.
Keywords:“Kant”, “purpose”,“Natural Purpose(organism)”, “nature”, “purpose system”, “final purpose”,“human”.

The paradigm includes a set of values, beliefs and perceptions of reality with theories based on them, which uses a distinctive methodology to achieve research goals. The dominant paradigms in the humanities are Positivism, Interpretation, Criticism, Complexity and Postmodernism. This research seeks to understand the meta-theoretical and paradigmatic typology of economic schools by using the documentary and content analysis.
The results show that Neoclassical is positivist. Austrian tendencies are in the region of complexity, but the use of hermeneutics puts New Austrians closer to the interpretive paradigm, while the older part tends to be a Positivism. The existence of variable structures in the Post-Keynesian and Evolutionary indicates the influence of the Complexity. OIE is dominated by the Criticism because of its emphasis on domination and dialectics.
NIE uses the principles of Neoclassical and OIE as opposing currents. The elimination of this inconsistency has been due to the invention of Transaction Costs, which provides the basis for a paradigm shift from Positivism and Criticism to Complexity. The transaction cost is the unit of analysis and the connection of institutions to economic performance, the use of which will lead to objectivity and generalization.