https://method.rihu.ac.ir/ Methodology of Social Sciences and Humanities en daily 1 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2471.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: The epistemological landscape governing applied disciplines, such as nursing and pedagogy, has undergone a fundamental “interpretive turn,” compelling researchers to investigate the inherent richness of lived experience (tajribih-ʾi zistih). Within this evolving paradigm, Max van Manen’s hermeneutic phenomenological approach has secured an indispensable position, owing to its success in rendering abstract philosophical concepts into a highly practicable research framework for field practitioners. This methodology is customarily mobilized to cultivate professional acumen (phronesis), aiming specifically to generate “action-sensitive knowledge” (dānish-i ḥassās bih ʿamal). Van Manen’s endeavor deliberately transcends the mere description of observable behaviors, striving instead to penetrate the essential structures and very core of human experience to facilitate profound comprehension. Nevertheless, the pragmatic accessibility of van Manen’s method has subjected it to intense scrutiny from philosophical critics, most notably Dan Zahavi. Zahavi contends that van Manen’s framework has unduly reduced key Husserlian concepts—such as epoché (epūkhih) and reduction (taqlīl)—from a radical philosophical shift to mere operational tools. This, he argues, compromises phenomenology’s philosophical integrity in favor of a subjective psychology. This theoretical tension, a classic reflection of the conflict between theoretical rigor and practical utility, confronts researchers with a distinct “methodological impasse” (bunbast-i ravishshinākhtī). Consequently, this article proposes and articulates an innovative “Conceptual Framework of Reflection-Based Phenomenology” (Pidārshināsī-yi mubtanī bar taʾammul). This framework demonstrates how these two contradictory approaches—philosophical fidelity and practical applicability—can be dialectically integrated into a unified research endeavor. Specifically, this inquiry addresses the following pivotal questions: What are the foundational and procedural activities of van Manen’s methodology? What constitutes the core of the philosophical critiques (focusing on Dan Zahavi’s critique of van Manen’s approach)? How does the proposed framework ultimately resolve this tension? Methodology: The present inquiry is robustly anchored in the interpretive-critical paradigm and employs a sophisticated qualitative design of critical methodological analysis (taḥlīl-i intiqādī-yi ravishshinākhtī). This research architecture perfectly suits the article’s aim, as its objective is not the generation of novel empirical data, but the systematic exegesis, analysis, and comprehensive evaluation of an existing methodology in order to resolve the tension between theoretical fidelity and practical implementation. Data: The data comprised a purposefully compiled documentary corpus (majmūʿih-ʾi asnādī), which was organized into three distinct strata: Primary methodological texts of Max van Manen, which delineate his six research activities. Key critical texts from philosophical phenomenologists, focusing intensely on Dan Zahavi’s arguments. Foundational philosophical texts by pre-eminent thinkers such as Husserl, Heidegger, and Gadamer, which collectively established the necessary theoretical groundwork for rigorous analytical comparisons. Analysis process: This collection was subjected to a critical-hermeneutical documentary analysis, unfolding in three distinctive phases: Descriptive-interpretive phase: Aiming at a faithful delineation and precise circumscription of van Manen’s method. Analytical-comparative phase: Juxtaposing his core concepts against their philosophical antecedents and concomitant critiques. Critical-synthetic phase: Encompassing a holistic evaluation of the methodology. To frame the proposed solution, Paul Ricoeur’s hermeneutical arc (qaws-i hermenūtīkī-yi Pāl Rīkūr) was drawn upon. This allowed the demonstration of the integration of philosophical rigor (Zahavi’s demand) with practical utility (van Manen’s objective) into a singular trajectory, thereby introducing the “Reflection-Based Phenomenology” framework as a viable operational model. Results: The meticulous analysis ultimately yielded two fundamental achievements. Primary finding: The systematic reconstruction of Max van Manen’s methodology confirmed its architecture as a praxis-oriented framework built upon the dynamic interplay of six core research activities. Van Manen persistently emphasizes that these activities—such as “attending to the phenomenon” and “reflecting on essential themes”—do not constitute a linear sequence, but rather are interwoven and recursive dimensions through which the researcher dialectically moves. For instance, he regards “describing the phenomenon through writing” not as a final reporting stage, but as the central methodology of the inquiry, thereby transforming the act of writing into an instrument of reflective discovery. To guide this intricate process, van Manen proposes four “existentials of the lifeworld” (ujzistānsīyālhā-yi zīstjahān): Lived Space (fażā-yi zīstih) Lived Body (badan-i zīstih) Lived Time (zamān-i zīstih) Lived Human Relation (rābiṭih-ʾi insānī-yi zīstih) These function as indispensable heuristic guides for deepening the analysis. Secondary core finding: Derived from the comparative analysis, this clearly exposed the fundamental methodological schism between van Manen’s applied approach and Dan Zahavi’s philosophical perspective. The focal points of this critical discord were precisely delineated across three main domains: Domain Van Manen (Applied) Zahavi (Philosophical) Ultimate purpose of phenomenology Description of subjective experience Analysis of the correlation of consciousness and the world Role of epoché and reduction Practical tools Radical shift in philosophical attitude Concept of the phenomenon Conflated with subjective experience Distinction between Noesis (nūʾīsīs) and Noema (nūʾīmā)   These divergences unequivocally crystallize two radically different conceptions: empirical research concerning content (pizhūhish-i tajribī dar bāb-i muḥtawā) versus transcendental research regarding the conditions for the possibility of experience (pizhūhish-i mutaʿālī dar bāb-i sharāyiṭ-i imkān-i tajribih). Discussion and Conclusion: The findings of this inquiry affirm a central notion: the methodological tension between van Manen’s phenomenology of practice and Zahavi’s philosophical critiques ought not to be construed as a methodological error. Instead, this gulf must be strategically conceptualized as a “strategic translation” (tarjumānī-i rāhburdī) of an abstract philosophical stance into a tangible research methodology. Inspired by the Utrecht School, van Manen consciously subordinated philosophical exactitude to operational applicability, purposefully transforming complex concepts into accessible, executable processes for non-specialist practitioners. To intelligently navigate this tension, we propose the “Conceptual Framework of Reflection-Based Phenomenology.” Drawing fundamentally upon Paul Ricoeur’s hermeneutical arc, this framework establishes the requisite critical awareness through a dialectic of two core moments: Distanciation (fāṣilihguzārī): wherein the researcher rigorously interrogates the presuppositions and limitations inherent in the method. Appropriation (taṣʿīb): through which the inquirer engages existentially and empathetically with the lived experience. This paradigm empowers researchers to effectively leverage the strengths of van Manen’s method in producing action-sensitive knowledge, while simultaneously acknowledging and respecting its philosophical boundaries. The judicious application of van Manen’s methodology is, therefore, fundamentally contingent upon this conscious critical engagement. Adopting this reflective posture enables researchers to generate studies that are both academically well-grounded and profoundly meaningful for the domain of practice. The ultimate aspiration is that the transformation of van Manen’s method in its application will thus evolve into a committed instrument for producing beneficial and responsible knowledge. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2552.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: Adam Smith, recognized as the founder of the classical school of economics, is known for his two major works: The Wealth of Nations (1776) and The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759). However, in the history of economic thought, Smith has primarily been identified with the former, while the latter—containing profound philosophical, psychological, legal, and ethical teachings—has been largely neglected. Concepts such as empathy (hamdalī) and altruism (nūʿdūstī), which could serve as the foundation for human behavior and motivation, have effectively been excluded from conventional economic analysis. In contrast, notions such as “self-interest” (nafʿ-i shakhṣī) and “self-love” (ḥubb-i nafs) have contributed to the degradation of human identity and the disregard for ethical values. In his introduction to the classic edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Amartya Sen raises four fundamental themes—rationality (ʿaqlāniyyat), the plurality and diversity of human motives (takthur wa chandgānigī-yi angīzishhā-yi basharī), the relationship between institutions and the free market, and the strong link between ethics and economics—in order to demonstrate that the systematic unity (waḥdat-i sīstimātīk) governing Smith’s two works is consistent. Sen argues that the perceived tension between the two books stems from researchers’ inattention to the philosophical and ethical foundations set out in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. The primary objective of this article is, first, to explain Sen’s perspective on the fourfold neglect of Smith’s works and, second, to critique and analyze that perspective based on Smith’s original texts and the intellectual and social context of his time. The article seeks to answer the fundamental question of whether there is truly a systematic unity between Smith’s two works, or whether the contrast between the “empathetic man” (insān-i hamdil) of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and the “selfish man” (insān-i khwudkhwāh) of The Wealth of Nations has deeper roots in Smith’s intellectual development or in a substantive difference between the domains of the two works. Furthermore, the article addresses the claim that the greatest methodological error (khaṭā-yi mitudūlūzhīk) in various economic schools—from classical and neoclassical to Austrian, historical, institutional, and Marxist economics—arises from incorrect assumptions about human nature and essence. Method: This research is a theoretical and analytical interpretive study that adopts a philosophical methodological approach to re examine and critique the ideas of Adam Smith and Amartya Sen’s interpretation of them. The data collection method is based on documentary and library research of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources: Smith’s two main works (The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments) and Sen’s introduction to the Penguin Classics edition of the latter. Secondary sources: The works of prominent Smith scholars such as Göçmen and Butler, as well as writings of institutional economists such as Commons and Mitchell, and philosophers such as Goulet. Method of analysis: The analysis combines: An interpretive-hermeneutic approach (rawish-i tafsīrī-hermenūtīkī) to understanding Smith’s original intent from his texts. An internal critique method (rawish-i naqd-i darūnī) to assess the consistency or inconsistency of the ideas presented in the two books. Contextual analysis (taḥlīl-i zamīnihʾī) to understand the influence of the social, political, and economic conditions of eighteenth century England on the formation of Smith’s thought. Results: The findings show that Sen successfully demonstrates that Smith never abandoned the ideas set forth in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Six editions of this book were published between 1759 and 1790 (the year of Smith’s death), and the final editions appeared after the publication of The Wealth of Nations (1776). This historical fact confirms that Smith consistently remained committed to moral foundations, sympathy, and the impartial spectator (nāẓir-i bīṭaraf) as the theoretical framework for his economic analyses. Regarding the concept of “self love,” the article shows that Smith used this concept only to explain the motive for exchange in the market, not as a universal foundation for all human actions. In The Wealth of Nations, Smith explicitly states: “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.” At the same time, in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, he highlights the role of “humanity, justice, fairness, and public spirit” as the most useful qualities in social interactions. Another important finding is that Smith was not only an advocate of unconditional free markets, but also explicitly defended the necessity of “market including” interventions (mudākhilihā-yi dirbarandih-ʾi bāzār) in the form of public services such as free education, poverty relief, and support for workers. He distinguished “projectors” (dallālhā wa siftihbāzān) (speculators and rent seekers) from genuine innovators and described complete reliance on an unregulated market as disastrous. At the level of political philosophy, the distinction between Smith’s “impartial spectator” (which has an open, transnational scope) and John Rawls’s “social system” approach (limited to the borders of a single state) is identified as one of Smith’s important innovations. This distinction enables Smith to critique issues such as British colonialism in India, famines, and structural injustices, free from the constraints of national contracts (qarārdādhā-yi millī). Despite accepting Sen’s defense of the systematic unity of Smith’s two works, the article offers serious criticisms of this view: Smith was deeply influenced by the empiricist movement and the ideas of Hutcheson and Hume, and his inductive method prioritized the description of “what is” (ānchih hast) over the prescription of “what ought to be” (ānchih bāyad bāshad). Smith thought within the framework of Britain’s class based and colonial society; his presuppositions included the acceptance of domination, colonialism, and structural inequalities. He devised a recipe for the advancement of British industry and commerce, not a universal theory of justice. A more fundamental critique is that, despite Smith’s emphasis on sympathy and the impartial spectator, he placed instrumental reason at the service of Bentham’s doctrines of “pleasure and pain” (lidhdhat va dard), thereby laying fragile foundations for conventional economics. Ethics—the primary principles embedded in human beings since the beginning of creation—was consigned to oblivion, and this constitutes the greatest methodological error in subsequent economic schools. Discussion and Conclusion: Finally, the article concludes that it is essential to distinguish between “is” and “ought” (tamīz-i hast wa bāyad) in Smith’s works: The Wealth of Nations expresses the realities of the sensible world and the domination of the capitalist system, while The Theory of Moral Sentiments articulates ideals arising from human nature and conscience. Ignoring this duality and reducing Smith to a theorist of rational selfishness has led both to a misunderstanding of his works and to the decay of ethical values in conventional economics. Returning to an integrated and contextual reading of Smith’s thought is an undeniable necessity, especially for countries that uphold divine values and an awakened human conscience. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2482.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: Survivorship bias (sūgīrī-yi bāzmāndigī) is an important cognitive bias that affects the interpretation and analysis of data and the decision-making process, causing a person to reach decisions that may not be correct or fail due to ignoring some important information. Recognizing and understanding this bias can help a person perform better and more qualitatively in the decision-making process and, as an outcome, achieve better results. Survivorship bias means deviation in data interpretation due to ignoring information that was not considered in data analysis and review due to its absence in the data. This bias is due to focusing on data that has been successful and ignoring data that has been unsuccessful. Despite the importance of survivorship bias in data analysis and interpretation and conclusions, unfortunately, this type of bias has not been considered in research methods under the title of “research biases” (sūgīrīhā-yi pizhūhishī) and also as one of the cognitive biases associated with researchers that affect their research findings. Most analysis, interpretation, and conclusions have been carried out by considering only successful samples without considering failed samples. Of course, this warning was given in Ioannidis’s exciting article in 2019 titled “Why Most Published Research Findings Are Incorrect,” but it has not been heeded. Therefore, explaining the aforementioned bias and its undesirable consequences, as well as providing solutions to prevent or reduce it, are among the goals of this research. Method: In this study, a descriptive-analytical method (ravish-i tawṣīfī-taḥlīlī) is used to investigate and explain. In order to collect information, the library method was used, and articles from various scientific databases and existing books were reviewed and studied. In this research, first, a detailed examination of survivorship bias and its role in data analysis and interpretation deviation was conducted, including the types of cognitive bias categories and the nature of survivorship bias’s placement in these categories. Then, the findings were explained and a summary was provided. This study, due to the neglect of survivorship bias in research methods, comprehensively addresses this bias and provides new insights in this area. With this approach, the present study can be a reliable source for researchers to protect their research findings from survivorship bias, which adds to the validity of their findings. Results: Survivorship bias distorts research findings and leads to unreliable results. This type of bias is problematic because it leaves out important research data and threatens external validity (ravāyī-yi bīrūnī). In fact, the external validity of the findings is compromised by the inability to accurately represent society. Furthermore, this bias usually leads to overly optimistic and successful conclusions. Survivorship bias can lead researchers to draw incorrect conclusions because the observed data is incomplete. Discussion and Conclusion: Cognitive bias (sūgīrī-yi shinākhtī) means a deviation in the process of recognizing and interpreting information that occurs due to the assumptions and beliefs that an individual has. Survivorship bias, as one of the important cognitive biases, occurs when a person only considers the surviving observations without paying attention to the data points that were “not left out” in the event. Survivorship bias causes only living or successful samples to be examined, which leads to errors in judgment or conclusions. Survivorship bias means focusing on cases that have passed a selection stage and ignoring others. This bias addresses our tendency to gain useful information from successes and ignore similar failures. Survivorship bias acts like a mental trap (talah-ʾi ẕihnī), leading us to make false perceptions and wrong decisions. By focusing on successes and ignoring failures, we paint an incomplete and exaggerated picture of reality. Therefore, one of the main concerns of this research is how to reduce or prevent survivorship bias due to its undesirable consequences. To reduce or prevent survivorship bias, before anything else, one must recognize and become aware of these cognitive biases. After recognition, various strategies can be used to reduce or prevent survivorship bias, such as: Identifying failed data (shināsāyī-yi dādihā-yi nākām) Analyzing complete data (taḥlīl-i dādihā-yi kāmil) Consulting with competent individuals (mushāvirih bā afrād-i dhī al-ṣalāḥ) Studying data randomly (muṭāliʿih-ʾi dādihā bih ṣūrat-i taṣādufī) Accepting failure as a tool for learning (pazīriftan-i shikast bih ʿunvān-i abzārī barā-yi yādgīrī) Challenging assumptions (bih chālish kishīdan-i farżiyāt) Examining market data (barrasī-yi dādihā-yi bāzār) Properly designing a research protocol (ṭarāḥī-yi ṣaḥīḥ-i prūtukul-i taḥqīqātī) Employing random or stratified sampling (bih kār gīrī-yi namūnihgīrī-yi taṣādufī yā ṭabaqihʾī) Using mathematical models and methods such as neural network models (istifādih az mudilhā va ravishhā-yi riyāḍī hamchūn mudilhā-yi shabakahā-yi ʿaṣabī) Acknowledgement: I would like to thank the professors at the University of Tehran for providing constructive feedback. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest related to this research. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2519.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: Some economic policies, such as income policies, are expected to bring about changes in the distribution or redistribution of income—referred to as welfare imperatives (bāyastihā-yi rafāhī)—such as improving the condition of the poor and reducing the wealth and income of some individuals in society. Welfare imperatives are discussed and explored in welfare economics (iqiṣād-i rafāh). These imperatives are deeply intertwined with ethical values and theories. The history of incorporating ethical theories into welfare economics dates back to Pigou’s initiative of introducing Bentham’s utilitarianism (fāyidihgarāyī) into his own theory of welfare economics. After him, doubts were raised regarding the competence of economists in entering the normative realm (qalamraw-i hujārī) and judging welfare states, which led some to attempt to cleanse welfare economics of normative discussions by focusing on Pareto optimality (bihīnigī-yi Pārītū). However, Bergson, by inventing the social welfare function (tābiʿ-i rafāh-i ijtimāʿī), demonstrated that normative ethical theories could be integrated into welfare economics in a way that preserves its scientific integrity while also supporting normative welfare policies. One of the most important and well-known normative ethical theories borrowed from moral philosophy to be included in the social welfare function is deontological ethics (vazīfigarāyī). This ethical theory is accepted as an axiom in Rawls’ welfare function. However, despite the application of the deontological moral perspective within the social welfare function, the nature of the relationship between this ethical discussion and the social welfare function remains unclear. Therefore, it seems necessary to clarify the concepts and features of deontological ethics and its relation to the social welfare function, as a prelude and explanation of how deontological ethics is applied in Rawls’ welfare function. This is the focus of the present inquiry. Method: Social welfare functions, in the relevant literature, are presented as mathematical functions using mathematical methods. On the other hand, deontology, as a normative theory in moral philosophy, is expressed descriptively. This methodological duality (dugānigī dar ravish) made the writing of an article on this subject very difficult for the author. Therefore, the core elements of the social welfare function had to be translated from mathematical expression into descriptive form to create methodological harmony and thus enable a connection between these two seemingly different subjects. After converting the mathematical form into a descriptive one, through analysis and scrutiny of the concepts of the social welfare function as an economic topic and deontology as a normative ethical theory, the relationship between the two was made possible, and the discussion of this application was completed. Results: There are many ambiguities in examining the application of deontology in Rawls’ social welfare function. This article resolves the most important ambiguities as follows: Normative social welfare functions are related to normative ethics. The independent variable (mutaghayyir-i mustaqil) in these functions is composed of the welfare states of all individuals in society. The explanatory variable (mutaghayyir-i tawḍīḥī), “social welfare,” is the desirable condition in a society that must be achieved. The relationship in this function indicates what change in social welfare results from any change in the existing welfare states of individuals. The difference between utilitarianism and deontology lies in the fact that, in utilitarianism, the moral value of an action is determined by its consequences, whereas in deontology, the criterion is the necessity (żarūrat) embedded in the action itself. It should be noted that this does not mean that a moral action in deontology has no consequences; rather, it means that it is not considered moral because of its consequences. The connection between the welfare function and moral philosophy is established through the dependent variable (mutaghayyir-i vābastih). In the dependent variable of the deontological welfare function, the increase in welfare of the least advantaged individual (fard-i kamtar bihrihmand) is inherently valuable and considered a moral goal. Thus, it connects to deontological ethical theory in moral philosophy. It appears that although, according to Rawls’ ethical idea and the realization of his deontological welfare function, society achieves equality (barābarī), in this function, a particular form of distribution (like equality) is not considered a moral or ethical goal. Instead, the specific change desired by deontologists in each individual’s utility is inherently desirable for society and becomes a moral objective. Therefore, in Rawls’ welfare function, the increase in welfare of the least advantaged individual is valuable and a moral goal in itself, regardless of the equality resulting from it. This moral objective also has a non-ethical background. Rawls emphasizes that before such a form of distribution takes shape in the mind, in a hypothetical and foundational contract (qarārdād-i irtikāzī wa khayālī), through the participation of individuals and groups in certain fair arrangements, they develop claims over each other defined in mutually accepted rules and laws. Individuals and groups, having acted based on these arrangements, have now acquired rights and demand fair distribution and their rightful share. In such a case, Rawls’ theory of justice emerges as a fair plan that meets people’s legitimate needs and satisfies their justified expectations through social institutions. This view of economic justice implies that when using the social welfare function for welfare policies, one should not initially turn to ethical theories in moral philosophy; instead, one should first consider social contracts (qarārdādhā-yi ijtimāʿī). In this case, whatever is prescribed by these contracts is also considered ethical. Discussion and Conclusion: The application of deontological ethics in Rawls’ social welfare function is explained in such a way that in the dependent variable of this function, the increase in welfare of the least advantaged individual is presented as a moral and value-based goal, thereby establishing a connection with deontological ethics in moral philosophy. As a result of this connection, Rawls’ social welfare function is a normative function; thus, welfare policy-makers and implementers are recommended to realize it in society. In this function, the moral action is that the state must intervene in the redistribution of wealth and income in such a way as to increase the welfare of the least advantaged individuals in society, and this increase should continue until complete equality is achieved. The independent variable and the functional relationship in any welfare function do not express a moral goal; rather, their connection to ethics is derived from the dependent variable. For instance, in Rawls’ welfare function, it is said that morally, the welfare of the least advantaged individual in society should increase. This statement follows from the fact that what is targeted morally in Rawls’ welfare function is solely the increase in the utility of the least advantaged individual in society, which—according to the functional relationship in this function—by itself and without considering any other consequence, leads to an increase in the desirability of society. Acknowledgement: Thanks are due to Dr. Mohammad Taghi Gilak Hakimabadi as the esteemed supervisor of this project, and to Dr. Mehdi Alizadeh and Dr. Ataollah Rafiee-Atani as reviewers (in the review session), and also to the esteemed officials of the Research Institute of Hawzah and University, whose generous support made this research possible. Gratitude is also extended to the editor-in-chief and managing director and all the staff of the esteemed journal Methodology of Human Sciences. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2496.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: Human resource governance is the golden key to improving and transforming public administration. Human resource governance is improving the way human resources are managed and elite participation in key decision-making. In the past few decades, the importance of governance-based approaches and the role of human resource management have expanded. In general, human resource governance requires a change in attitude at the individual and organizational levels, and improving performance requires fundamental reforms. In this regard, human resource development in the field of governance can be understood as a process influenced by policy and process-based relationships. Research Methodology: Since its emergence in the last decade, Metasummary research has attracted considerable attention in the development of human resource governance. Studies show that Metasummary includes various methods that aim to develop research based on thematic analysis and an integrated combination of qualitative and quantitative studies. In this study, scientific journal articles were evaluated as primary data, and a purposive sampling method was selected. The present study was applied in terms of purpose, mixed in terms of data type, and Metasummary in terms of research strategy. By examining the research of the journals (Improvement and Transformation, Public Administration, Public Administration Perspective) as the unit of analysis, in the period of spring 2017-summer 2025, 43 articles were evaluated. In order to evaluate the selected articles in this study, initially, the research that was related to the subject area was evaluated and analyzed, which focused on human resource governance issues, and theoretical coherence was carried out by experts for thematic approaches. Results: The effect size results of the HRG reference indicators were very clear and useful, and the value of both qualitative and quantitative research was raised. The effect sizes of the research findings were estimated as follows: governance and public management 0.016, governance and excellence 0.010, governance and human capital 0.016, governance and sustainability 0.04, governance and grid 0.013, governance and education 0.06, network governance 0.011, governance and corruption 0.013, and governance and social responsibility 0.04. In addition, the present study highlighted the analysis and development of the governance topic and addressed thematic approaches. The review of these studies increases methodological and literature gaps and provides comprehensive guidance for future research. The findings indicate that research in the qualitative field has appropriate thematic and methodological relevance. Discussion and Conclusion: There is a lack of Metasummary studies; although there is foreign research in this field, there are still relatively few published studies in this field, and Metasummary was developed by Sandelowski and Barroso. The results showed that qualitative research with an effect size of (0.072) plays a very key role in the human resource governance literature, compared to quantitative research with an effect size of (0.028). The innovation of the present study is the very limited use of Metasummary in the country’s scientific research in human resource governance. Metasummary shows that the findings are not only academically desirable, but also related to education and excellence. This study was conducted by laying the groundwork for further research, which presents the findings of the study. Despite the differences in methodological perspectives, this study has implications for the development of Metasummary research, with a distinctive methodological role, literature review, and its approaches. The priorities of thematic approaches were often formed based on the importance of the topic, which can increase the thematic focus of the research literature. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest related to this research https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2491.html Extended Abstract   Introduction and Objectives: Metaphors (istiʿārih) are not merely literary devices but cognitive mechanisms through which individuals conceptualize the world, social relations, and institutional authority. Since the publication of Lakoff and Johnson’s seminal work Metaphors We Live By (1980), the role of conceptual metaphors (istiʿārih-yi mafhūmī) in shaping human understanding, social structures, and political power has been widely recognized. In legal texts, metaphors subtly convey ideology, structure authority, and legitimize state action. The 1968 Iranian Water Nationalization Law (*Qānūn-i millī shudan-i āb-i sāl 1347 H.sh.*), a key policy regulating water ownership and management, provides a compelling case for examining metaphors’ role in law. This study applies critical metaphor analysis (taḥlīl-i intiqādī-yi istiʿārih) to explore how the law constructs water and state authority. The research addresses four questions: What are the dominant conceptual metaphors in the law, and how do they structure meaning? Which source and target domains are activated, and what conceptual features are mapped? How do these metaphors reproduce ideologies and power relations in the socio-political context of 1960s Iran? How does the metaphorical network legitimize state authority, shape resource management, and frame water in terms of development, justice, and protection? By addressing these questions, the study illustrates how metaphors function as both cognitive and socio-political tools, revealing the intertwined nature of language, governance, and ideology. Method: The study employs Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) by Charteris-Black (2004), integrating cognitive linguistics and critical discourse analysis. CMA identifies, interprets, and explains conceptual metaphors, uncovering ideological and power-related functions in texts. Data sources: The full text of the 1968 Iranian Water Nationalization Law and related legislative documents. Analysis stages: The analysis was conducted in four steps: Pre-metaphor analysis (taḥlīl-i pīshāstiʿārī): Examining the context of the law’s production, producers, audience, and the historical-political background. Metaphor identification (shināsāyī-yi istiʿārih): Systematic extraction and categorization of metaphorical expressions related to water, state authority, governance, justice, and development, based on linguistic indicators and semantic tension. Metaphor interpretation (tafsīr-i istiʿārih): Analysis of source-to-target domain mappings, tone, and cognitive function of metaphors. Metaphor explanation (tabyīn-i istiʿārih): Critical analysis within the framework of power and ideology, and analysis of the socio-political consequences of the metaphorical representation of water. This methodology combines qualitative textual analysis with conceptual mapping, situating metaphors within historical and political contexts to strengthen validity. This approach ensures a rigorous interpretation of metaphorical structures, revealing both cognitive and discursive functions. Results: The analysis identifies five primary conceptual metaphors in the law: Water as National Wealth (Āb bih ʿUnvān-i Dārāyī-yi Millī) Expressions such as “water as a national resource” and “under government control” frame water economically, legitimizing state ownership and centralized control. Mapping: Ownership, economic value, collective control, nationalization. Government as Manager and Guardian (Dawlat bih ʿUnvān-i Mudīr va Nigahbān) The state is metaphorically positioned as “manager” or “custodian,” establishing hierarchical governance and positioning citizens as dependent beneficiaries. Mapping: Supervision, hierarchical control, centralized decision-making. Water as Controllable Technological Resource (Āb bih ʿUnvān-i Manbaʿ-i Qābil-i Kuntrul va Tīknīkī) Phrases like “construction of infrastructure” and “flood control” depict water as subject to technical expertise, emphasizing rational, scientific control. Mapping: Controllability, technical rationality, management efficiency. Water Distribution as Justice (Tawzīʿ-i Āb bih ʿUnvān-i ʿAdālat) References such as “fair allocation” or “water rights” operationalize justice within bureaucratic frameworks. Mapping: Social fairness, regulatory compliance, state-mediated equity. Water as Source of Life and National Survival (Āb bih ʿUnvān-i Manbaʿ-i Ḥayāt va Baqā-yi Millī) Expressions like “vital resources” and “prevention of pollution” connect ecological necessity to national well-being, framing intervention as ethical and essential. Mapping: Essentiality, life-sustaining, societal and national continuity. Key Concept Conceptual Metaphor Linguistic Examples Source Domain Target Domain Metaphoric Mappings National Ownership & Resources Water as national wealth/asset "Water is part of national wealth", "belongs to all people of Iran", "under government control" Economy & Ownership Water & Water Resources Ownership, economic value, collective control, nationalization Government Authority & Control Government as manager/custodian "Ministry of Water and Electricity is responsible", "permits issued by government" Governance & Bureaucracy Water Management Supervision, hierarchical control, centralized decision-making Development & Technical Control Water as controllable force/development tool "Construction of infrastructure", "flood control", "measurement of water usage" Engineering & Technology Water Resources Controllability, technical rationality, management efficiency Justice & Distribution Water distribution as justice "Fair distribution of water", "allocation rights", "violation of regulations" Justice & Law Water Allocation Social fairness, regulatory compliance, state-mediated equity Environmental & Protective Values Water as vulnerable resource "Protection of resources", "prevention of pollution", "safeguarding vital resources" Ethics & Environmental Care Water & Infrastructures Vulnerability, necessity of protection, monitoring Vitality & National Life Water as source of life "Vital resources of the country", "provision of drinking water", "sustainability of resources" Life & Ecology Water & Society Essentiality, life-sustaining, societal and national continuity   This table demonstrates how metaphors structure discourse, link source and target domains, and provide a cognitive and ideological framework for legitimizing state authority. Discussion and Conclusion: The 1968 law uses a structured metaphorical system to naturalize state authority and embed ideology. Water is conceptualized as economic wealth, a technical resource, a vital life element, and a mechanism for social justice. Key functions include: Economic and Nationalist Legitimacy (Mashrūʿiyyat-i Iqiṣādī wa Millīgarāyānah): Water-as-wealth metaphors justify state ownership and centralization. Bureaucratic and Technical Authority (Iqtidār-i Būrūkrātīk wa Fannī): Government-as-manager metaphors reinforce technocratic control. Justice and Ethical Governance (ʿAdālat wa Ḥukmrānī-yi Akhlāqī): Water-as-justice metaphors translate normative ideals into enforceable regulations. Life and National Survival (Ḥayāt wa Baqā-yi Millī): Biological metaphors connect water to national vitality, framing state intervention as a moral duty. The law constructs a coherent ideology intertwining water, development, justice, and centralized state power. Metaphors operate simultaneously at cognitive, linguistic, and social levels, reproducing power asymmetries and marginalizing local governance (ḥukmrānī-yi maḥallī). Critical Metaphor Analysis demonstrates that metaphors are central to ideological and political legitimation, showing that legal texts can function as instruments shaping perception, justifying authority, and naturalizing government roles. Conflict of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2342.html As an innovative approach in qualitative research, the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) serves as an effective tool for gaining a deeper understanding of participants' attitudes and feelings toward various topics and phenomena under investigation. This technique is grounded in the principles of nonverbal communication and imagery, allowing researchers to uncover unconscious meanings through the use of images and metaphors. ZMET is particularly relevant in fields such as marketing, psychology, and cultural studies, where it can help extract rich and meaningful data. This article outlines the ZMET approach and provides guidance on its implementation. The steps involved include collecting images, storytelling, identifying missing images, sorting images, extracting structures, selecting the most representative image, contrasting images, creating sensory images, developing mind maps, summarizing images, and crafting vignettes. These steps assist researchers in identifying customer thought patterns. Additionally, the article addresses the challenges and limitations associated with using this technique in research and offers solutions to facilitate its application. Given ZMET's capacity to provide profound insights into individuals' experiences through visualization, it can be a valuable tool in qualitative research. In conclusion, by highlighting the advantages and applications of ZMET, this article encourages more researchers to adopt this method, thereby enriching the research literature in this area. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2447.html The intellectual transformations arising from the transition from postmodernism to the so-called "post-postmodern" condition have created a favorable context for rethinking the philosophical foundations of organizational and management theories. Aiming to analyze the ontology and epistemology of organizational theories within this new context, this article first examines the alternative nomenclatures proposed for the post-postmodern era, including hypermodernity, performatism, digimodernism, metamodernism, critical modernism, cosmodernism, and altermodernity.Subsequently, through a critical analysis, the article explores alternative philosophical approaches developed in response to the limitations of postmodernism, such as Roy Bhaskar’s critical realism, Jürgen Habermas’s theory of communicative action, Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory, Pierre Bourdieu’s genetic structuralism, Richard Rorty’s late pragmatism, and Brian Fay’s philosophical interactionism.These approaches seek to overcome traditional epistemological dualisms and, by integrating structural and agentic factors, enable the development of reflective, interdisciplinary, and cross-cultural dialogical theorizing in the field of organization and management.Ultimately, the article argues that the post-postmodern condition — by reviving concepts such as rationality, agency, the dialectic of structure and action, and by opening new avenues for philosophical reflection on science, organization, and culture — offers significant capacities for advancing the theoretical and methodological foundations of organizational sciences. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2483.html This study aimed to conduct a conceptual and methodological analysis of the self-fulfilling prophecy bias in qualitative research and to propose strategies for its control and reduction. Methodologically, it was a descriptive-analytical study based on a systematic review of library sources. The research was structured in three stages: first, theoretical and conceptual redefinition of the self-fulfilling prophecy bias; second, analysis of preventive strategies grounded in modern qualitative methodologies; and finally, conceptual organization of findings and articulation of the relationships between sources of bias, enabling contexts, and control strategies. Findings indicated that qualitative researchers simultaneously function as agents of knowledge and potential sources of bias. Initial expectations may unconsciously shape interpretations in a way that confirms those expectations. To address this issue, strategies such as increasing methodological awareness, employing bricolage, practicing reflexivity, maintaining reflective journals, enhancing procedural transparency, applying data triangulation, and engaging in peer debriefing were identified. These strategies contribute to enhancing the credibility, transparency, and authenticity of qualitative research and help prevent the distortion of data caused by researcher bias. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2508.html This study aims to develop a theoretical model of the relationship between agency and structure grounded in Allameh Tabataba’i’s realist epistemology. To this end, the ontology of volitional action and its prerequisites, as well as the nature and types of reality and their modes of cognition, are examined. Based on this analysis, a theoretical framework is proposed that reflects the agency-structure relationship within a realist paradigm. The findings indicate that social reality belongs to the category of psychological realities; however, unlike individual mental states, it is not ontologically grounded in the individual but rather in the collective. As a form of reality, it has causal efficacy and exhibits resistance to individual will. Volitional action is preceded by both cognitive and emotional components, which are shaped by various types of realities, including social realities. However, these realities do not determine action; instead, they function as enabling or facilitating conditions. Moreover, action itself constitutes a physical reality that produces effects on biological and psychological realities, both internal and external. While different kinds of realities—including social ones—serve as background conditions for the emergence of action, they can, by facilitating specific forms of action on a broad scale, generate consequences in other domains of reality, whether physical or social. This demonstrates a mechanism through which various layers of reality influence and are influenced by one another. In conclusion, the study of action involves complex causality and contextual factors. Identifying the composition and degree of facilitation offered by these factors is among the key concerns in sociological inquiry. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2517.html hermeneutics of Gadamer and Foucault, demonstrating how, in responses to epidemics and pandemics, clinical and treatment-oriented rationalities have structurally taken precedence over public health policies and preventive strategies. By “the lag of public health,” the article refers to a condition in which preventive interventions, public education, and collective health policies do not function as foundational elements of health but instead enter the field belatedly, only after the emergence of crisis and mounting pressure on clinical and therapeutic systems. Drawing on hermeneutics, particularly Gadamer’s reflections on the invisibility of health and Foucault’s analysis of the clinical gaze, the article argues that the epistemic focus of modern medicine on the diseased body has systematically marginalized public health. Through a comparative examination of cases such as the Spanish influenza, the HIV/AIDS crisis, the Ebola epidemic, SARS, MERS, and the COVID-19 pandemic, it is shown that this lag has led to consequences including increased mortality, the intensification of social inequalities, and the erosion of public trust. The article ultimately emphasizes the need to reconceptualize health as an integral component of the good life and social justice, arguing that a shift from treatment-centered biopolitics toward a biopolitics of care is essential for addressing future health crises effectively. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2518.html Scientific research is not carried out by individual scientists in isolation, but within a community and through its internal institutional interactions. A scientific community will correctly function when there are scientific norms and certain “ethos”. In other words, the community should have “Integrity”. Scientific research also needs money, and the Patrons of Science, including the Government, the Market, and Industry, rightly expect the scope of “scientific” Issues to be broader than just Internal scientific problems, and more relevant to the government or industry level. In other words, the scientific community should be “productive”. Although these two characteristics (i.e., Integrity and Productivity) are different concepts, further reflection and reference to some theories indicate a closer connection between these two concepts, which if this is the case, policy-making regarding it will also require simultaneous attention to both concepts. This article will argue that the productivity of science cannot be realized unless the issue of the integrity of scientific communities (I.e. the issue of scientific misconduct) is addressed. It will also be explained that the solution to the problem of scientific misconduct (not only through legal activities but also) can be provided by forming Boundary Organizations, which are formed between the scientific community and the Patrons. And finally, the boundary organization cannot be formed in a random situation and only by internal governmental decisions and carrying out policy procedures. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2530.html This article examines the problem of epistemological discontinuity in the analysis of the intellectual system of Martyr Sayyid Muḥammad Bāqir al-Ṣadr. In existing scholarship, his works are often studied in isolation and within separate disciplinary frameworks—such as philosophy, jurisprudence, and economics. In particular, the methodology of discovering a school of thought (maktab) presented in Iqtisaduna, which has long been the subject of significant debates from both jurisprudential and economic perspectives, is typically analyzed without sufficient attention to its foundational logical underpinnings as developed in al-Ṣadr’s other major work, al-Usus al-Manṭiqiyya li’l-Istiqrāʾ (The Logical Foundations of Induction). The central hypothesis of this paper is that, contrary to the assumption of discontinuity, the method of discovering a school of thought—specifically at the stage of validation and demonstration of a coherent system—constitutes a precise application of the inductive mechanism articulated in al-Usus. Employing an analytical–comparative approach, the study demonstrates that although the initial formulation of school-level hypotheses possesses an ijtihād-based character, the transition to objective certainty in al-Ṣadr’s thought is a systematic process grounded in the logical refutation of the hypothesis of legislative coincidence. The novelty of this research lies in its precise articulation of the role of this mechanism as the driving force behind the transition from individual legal rulings to school-level certainty. The findings indicate that by employing probability calculus—analogous to the concept of tawātur—al-Ṣadr refutes the possibility that the coherence among legal rulings is merely coincidental, thereby elevating the discovery of a school of thought from a conjectural inference to a theory grounded in certainty https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2543.html Scientific transformations in the world occur over relatively long periods, particularly those capable of leading major scientific currents and enlisting great scholars. The epistemological turn in the early periods of modernity was among the first transformations that marked the transition from metaphysical ontology towards epistemology. The focus on epistemology remained the dominant aspect of scientific research across various periods of philosophical and humanistic thought. This trend continued until linguistics gained a special status in philosophical and social knowledge. After passing through stages of this period, the principle of language's representation of nature and reality was challenged. With a linguistic turn, language became not only the axis of thought but also a reality-constructing element, severing philosophy's connection to any independent reality outside of humans, language, and society. This fundamental turn had profound consequences for the humanities, including the broad perspective that views reality as socially structured—a view that came to organize a significant portion of modern human life. Although this perspective gained extensive influence, voices from within the modern world arose questioning the validity of the linguistic turn, subsequently demanding a focus on *action* as the axis of social being. Outside the modern world, such a trend had begun much earlier and was constructing a new reality that challenged the validity of certain modern constructs at the level of the social system. This reality was that of Islamic *volitional beings*, which turned the subject of the humanities toward the ontology of human reality. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2545.html This study, focusing on the thought of Giambattista Vico, validates five major interpretations of the methodology articulated in his New Science, a work established as a philosophy of culture opposing the dominant Cartesian epistemology of its time. By advancing the principle of verum factum (“the true is the made”), Vico affirmed the autonomy of the human sciences and distinguished interpretive “understanding”—achieved through imagination (fantasia)—from causal, naturalistic “explanation.” Using a verisimilitude-based evaluative framework, the research examines the positions of Croce, Horkheimer, Pompa, Berlin, and Mali in relation to four foundational pillars of Vichian methodology: verum factum, poetic wisdom, the unity of philology and philosophy, and divine providence. The findings indicate that Idealistic (Croce) and Materialistic (Horkheimer) readings exhibit lower validity due to various forms of reductionism, while the Deductive interpretation (Pompa) insufficiently accounts for imaginative operations. In contrast, the Hermeneutic-Cultural paradigm advanced by Berlin and Mali, emphasizing reconstructive imagination and internal understanding, displays the highest degree of coherence with Vico’s methodological framework and broader conception of human cultural development. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_2556.html Centers of excellence are a funding mechanism in science and technology whereby substantial resources are concentrated in a limited number of high-performing research groups, with the expectation of generating significant (scientific, technological, or problem-solving) achievements at the international level. Despite their widespread adoption, relatively little attention has been paid to the criteria for determining how many centers of excellence a country should establish. This article first examines the concept of excellence and its uses in order to derive two general principles for determining the appropriate number of centers of excellence: the selection process for centers of excellence among applications needs to be highly selective; and the number of applications accepted should be established in a way that ensures that each center receives enough financial support for its activities. It then analyzes financial data from excellence programs in three selected countries and compares them with Iran, assessing whether and to what extent these principles are reflected in current funding practices.